- Introduction:
Psychology has been an important field of study throughout history. From the Greeks and Babylonians to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the discipline of psychology and the study of the mind have evolved over time. During the Golden Era of Islam, various Islamic sciences flourished, and psychology was among them. Notable Muslim pioneers in this field during that period include Al-Kindi (803-873), Abu Zayd Al-Balkhi (850-934), Al-Farabi (872-950), Ibn Sina (980-1037), and Imam Ghazali (1058-1111). However, as the Islamic empires began to decline, particularly in the 19th and 20th centuries, modern psychology emerged and became dominant globally. Today, modern psychology is widely studied and continues to evolve, while the development and research in Islamic psychology have been largely suppressed. - Differences Between the Viewpoints of Both Psychologies:
The differences between Islamic and modern psychology are significant. While their perspectives diverge, a thorough analysis reveals that Islamic psychology addresses many important aspects also covered in modern psychology. Recent research conducted by various Islamic psychologists often aligns with findings from modern psychologists.
Islamic psychology takes a holistic approach that considers the mind, body, and soul simultaneously. It places a stronger emphasis on the heart and the connection of the soul to the divine, contrasting with modern psychology, which often prioritizes the self over spiritual considerations. Islamic psychology aligns closely with the teachings of the Qur’an and the principles of Prophet Muhammad.
When treating mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and fear, the Islamic approach differs significantly from modern practices. Modern psychologists typically focus on addressing symptoms without delving into the root causes of these issues, which they often attribute to factors related to the body and environment. In contrast, Islamic psychology seeks to identify whether the root cause of a problem may be spiritual or related to the soul. Only if it is determined that the soul is not the primary issue will other bodily aspects be considered in treatment.
In this article the author attempts to give a brief summary and critique of the various ways Islamic Psychology is conceptualized and defined. She then proposes and discusses a conceptual model, the Multilevel Interdisciplinary Paradigm (MIP), as a potential theoretical unifier for the emerging field, which also serves as a methodology for defining it. Recommendations for ways forward in the domain of Islamic Psychology are also provided.
Islamic Psychology: Towards a 21st Century Definition and Conceptual Framework
1. Introduction
In the vibrant and evolving field often called “Islamic Psychology,” a more fitting term might be “Islam and Psychology.” This distinction is essential because we currently lack a universally accepted definition or theoretical framework that seamlessly brings these ideas together. The abundance of definitions found in the works of esteemed scholars reflects a fascinating web of research that draws from a variety of disciplines, such as psychology, theology, Arabic literature, philosophy, history, and mental health. This interdisciplinary approach underscores the complexity and depth of the subject.
Numerous publications explore foundational concepts vital to Islamic psychology, examining elements like fitra and our reliance on God, along with rida and purposeful action. Key terms, including tawheed, taqwa, tawba, and jihad al-nafs, are integral to this important discourse. Scholars are keenly investigating Islamic perspectives on the self, discussing notions like ruh, qalb, aql, nafs, ihsas, and irada. It’s particularly exciting to see how these concepts are often compared with Western psychological theories, including those proposed by Freud, with some researchers introducing the idea of an Islamic personality theory.
There’s an exciting wave of enthusiasm among scholars eager to blend Islamic principles and spiritual therapies, like dhikr and ruqya, into psychotherapy! This innovative exploration opens doors to truly inspiring Islamically integrated therapeutic approaches. Researchers are passionately diving into the fascinating similarities and differences between Western psychology and Islamic theology. Some even suggest that Islamic psychology has deep roots in tasawwuf, showing how early Muslim scholars laid the important groundwork for this vital field. One particularly intriguing highlight is a 9th-century scholar’s insights on phobias and obsessional disorders, which wonderfully resonate with modern psychological classifications. These remarkable historical insights invite us to enrich our contemporary understanding of psychology in meaningful ways!
While scholarly activities in the field are valuable and have contributed to the knowledge economy, they haven’t fully answered the crucial question: “What is Islamic psychology?”
Is Islamic psychology simply a form of Sufism? If so, which type of Sufism are we referring to? Alternatively, can it be understood as “psychology from an Islamic perspective”? If that’s the case, whose interpretation of Islam should we consider—Sunni or Shia?
Another possibility is that it’s psychology blended with some aspects of Islam. But which specific aspects of Islam are we talking about? Conversely, could it be seen as Islam that incorporates elements of psychology? If this is the case, which branch of psychology—clinical, organizational, social, or neuro—are we referencing?
There’s also the question of whether Islamic psychology focuses solely on the spiritual dimensions of a person. Does it only address issues like the diseases of the heart or soul? Or does it encompass a broader approach, including the use of an Islamic model of the self in therapy? This could involve integrating practices such as prayer and spiritual therapies.
What about modern Muslim psychologists who create their own therapeutic methods? Are these methods, such as Sabr Therapy or Jihad Therapy, considered part of Islamic psychology?
Many people tend to confuse Islamic psychology with Muslim Mental Health (MMH). MMH focuses on the mental health needs of Muslims, particularly those living in the West in light of current global events. It aims to address challenges like Islamophobia, trauma from war and migration, substance abuse, domestic violence, radicalization, and help-seeking behaviors. These issues represent a different focus than what traditional Islamic psychology seeks to define and explore.
Based on this broad array of fragmented scholarship, it appears that at present, Islamic psychology is defined and/or conceptualized according to however a particular scholar understands it which is usually based on his or her own work. Given this challenge, if an Islamic Psychology (IP) discipline has any hope of flourishing and contributing to the broader knowledge economy, a definition of what the field is as well as a conceptual framework that links scholarship is needed so that researchers can think, integrate material, and identify ways forward.
2. Foundational Components of a Discipline
Every academic field should include some essential elements that help define and structure it. These elements typically include:
- A clear definition of the discipline.
- A theoretical framework that connects it to other related areas of study.
- The philosophical principles that underpin the discipline.
- An understanding of the nature of the discipline itself.
- The research methods used in this field.
- The main subjects or themes that the discipline focuses on.
In this chapter, we will focus on two key components:
a) a proposed definition of Islamic Psychology along with the methodology used to establish that definition, and
b) a conceptual framework that will help ground the discipline and bring together various scholarly efforts.
3. Islamic Psychology: Not Quite Defined
Clearly defining terms is crucial in scholarly work, especially when developing new concepts. In examining publications on “Islamic Psychology,” we notice two trends:
- Some scholars talk about the topic without defining it, assuming that readers already understand what it means.
- Others attempt to define it but don’t explain the methods behind those definitions.
Both approaches offer valuable chances for improvement and deeper exploration. By addressing these gaps, we can better understand this fascinating field. Let’s work together to enhance our knowledge!
In “Mandate for Muslim Mental Health Professionals: An Islamic Psychology,” Hamid (1977) offers six points about what Islamic psychology (IP) is not, but does not provide a definition. Similarly, Skinner (1989) discusses IP in his article “Traditions, Paradigms, and Basic Concepts in Islamic Psychology,” referencing Badri’s view that IP is “sound empirical psychology used morally” (p. 4) without further elaboration.
Khosravi and Bagheri (2006) explore IP in “Towards an Islamic Psychology” without clarifying their definition. Siddiqui and Malek (1996) describe it as the study of individuals fully submitting to God’s laws, but the rationale behind this definition is unclear. Vahab (2004) defines it as studying God’s manifestations in nature through the lens of Islamic paradigms, but like others, does not explain his reasoning.
Younos (2017) mentions he will define IP in “Principles of Islamic Psychology,” yet does not do so, focusing instead on Quranic insights. Ward (2017) suggests an ecological framework for IP in “Elucidating the Psychospiritual Conflict of Worldviews,” but does not provide a definition.
Other articles, such as those by Abdul Razak and Hisham (2012), discuss qualities of the discipline without definitive clarity. This overview highlights the existing literature on defining Islamic psychology, placing it in context for further discussion.
For a scientific field to thrive, it’s essential to have a clear understanding of fundamental concepts, including definitions. While clarity in these areas can greatly accelerate progress, it’s fascinating to see that many disciplines have grown despite the absence of a universally accepted definition (Emmons & Paloutzian, 2003). This holds true for Islamic Psychology as well, where vibrant scholarship is emerging, even if it’s somewhat fragmented at the moment.
To deepen our understanding of this intriguing field, I’m excited to propose a definition of Islamic Psychology. To do this effectively, we’ll first examine the conceptual framework that will guide our definition and shape the development of the discipline. Together, we can explore these ideas and foster the growth of Islamic Psychology!
4. The Multilevel Interdisciplinary Paradigm—A Conceptual Framework and Methodology
The Multilevel Interdisciplinary Paradigm (MIP) is a framework in the psychology of religion and spirituality, introduced by Emmons and Paloutzian in 2003 and further developed by Paloutzian and Park in 2005 and 2013. It reflects the Islamic concept of tawheed, highlighting unity and interconnectedness in research.
The MIP aims to guide discussions and research across various subfields, fostering connections among diverse topics. It consists of components like disciplines, sub-disciplines, levels, and methods that interact with each other. This structure helps researchers understand complex fields such as Islamic Psychology and serves as a useful tool for any interdisciplinary discipline.
This exciting model is dynamic and flexible, bringing together knowledge from diverse fields to deeply explore important topics! It combines insights from psychology and related areas while thoughtfully considering various Islamic sects, sources, and schools of thought. By using a mix of research methods, we aim to build a rich understanding of Islamic Psychology.
Put simply, Islamic Psychology is a vibrant interdisciplinary science where professionals from different psychology sectors and related fields work together to examine specific issues through the lens of Islamic teachings and perspectives. Together, we can uncover valuable insights that enrich our understanding!
5. Unpacking the Definition
Psychology and Islam are both broad concepts that need to be clarified to understand them better. Psychology can be divided into several subfields, such as clinical, social, neuropsychology, developmental psychology, health psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, forensic psychology, and school psychology. Additionally, related fields include psychiatry, social work, mental health counseling, and marriage and family therapy.
Similarly, Islam can be categorized in various ways. It can be divided by sect (like Sunni and Shia), by sources such as the Quran or hadith, by influential scholars (like al-Ghazali), or by branches of Islamic knowledge (including tafsir, fiqh, aqeedah, and tasawwuf). The phrases “in Islam” or “Islam says” are often used, but they can be misleading because they oversimplify the complexity of Islamic scholarship. Historically, scholars were more specific in their references, often citing particular interpretations or works.
When considering the connection between psychology and Islam, many topics may arise, ranging from the individual (micro level) to familial (mid level) and societal (macro level). Various research methods can be employed, from rigorous quantitative approaches like randomized control trials to qualitative methods like phenomenology, case studies, ethnographies, and historical analyses.
For anyone interested in Islamic Psychology, the Modern Islamic Psychology (MIP) framework provides a useful way to connect their work to the existing body of scholarship. Scholars can identify specific aspects of psychology and Islam that relate to their research topics, the levels they are addressing, and the methods they are using, which are often influenced by their professional background. This approach allows Islamic Psychology to remain diverse yet cohesive, accommodating various perspectives and disciplines.
6. Discussion
Defining the terms and setting the boundaries for any academic discipline, including Islamic psychology, is a common challenge. For instance, scholars studying the psychology of religion and spirituality often grapple with what the terms “religion” and “spirituality” actually mean. They explore how these concepts are similar, how they differ, and how one can even study something that isn’t clearly defined (see Harris, Howell, & Spurgeon, 2018). In these situations, researchers tend to use operational definitions of these terms, rather than universally accepted ones—each approach having its pros and cons. Other fields of psychology, such as Christian Psychology, Buddhist Psychology, and Transpersonal Psychology, face similar difficulties in clarifying their definitions and boundaries. Therefore, the lack of a clear definition for Islamic Psychology is not an isolated issue; it’s a common concern across various disciplines. However, what’s different now is that there hasn’t been much discussion specifically about Islamic Psychology in the literature until recently.
Another important aspect of defining Islamic Psychology is understanding what is meant by “Islamic.” This has been a topic of extensive debate, both historically and in contemporary discussions. Some argue that to be considered Islamic, a concept or practice must be rooted in the Quran and/or Sunnah, while others believe that it can simply be practices carried out by Muslims or those aligning with Islamic teachings and philosophy. There is no consensus on this matter.
Two important studies by Awaad and Ali (2015; 2016) focus on al-Balkhi’s book “Sustenance of the Body and Soul,” highlighting that his classifications of phobias and obsessive disorders closely resemble those in the modern DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). While many agree these classifications are not uniquely “Islamic,” some people associate Islamic psychology with early Muslim scholars like al-Balkhi.
This raises a key question: Was al-Balkhi practicing what we now consider psychology, and can we label it Islamic psychology simply because it originated in an Islamic context?
Another issue is the term “Islamic psychology” itself. While identifying unique aspects of a discipline can be useful, it might also suggest that Western psychology is the standard, with other forms being inferior. This perspective aligns with the Indigenous psychology movement (see Marsella, 2013), which claims all psychology is Indigenous psychology, including Latino/a, Asian, Native American, and Black psychology.
This leads to the question: What would psychology be like if it had developed in the Islamic world with Muslim scholars in the lead? Would it still be called Islamic psychology?
7. Final Remarks
It remains to be seen if the MIP will be a useful tool to define and unite Islamic Psychology. It would seem that in the very least, even if we can’t arrive at a definitional agreement, one could use the MIP to operationalize a particular scope of work. In that regard, we have something in hand that we didn’t have before.
When we examine the critiques of the MIP, a key issue arises: it’s challenging to use a ‘non-Islamic’ framework to define scholarship in an ‘Islamic’ field. This opens up a chance to explore how the MIP and tawheed might connect or reflect a similar core idea.
Tawheed, which represents the oneness of God, can be hard to fully grasp. However, we can understand aspects of it through God’s attributes, like His 99 names, as well as through nature and self-reflection. By examining these elements and their connections, we can gain a clearer understanding.
In this context, tawheed and the MIP complement each other, providing a way to understand various subjects—whether related to God, personal experiences, or even scientific topics. As a result, the MIP can be seen as having a strong ‘Islamic’ quality, consistent with tawheed’s principles.
By exploring tawheed more deeply, we can enhance our understanding of the MIP and develop an ‘Islamic’ approach to scholarship. This can also contribute meaningfully to mainstream psychology by providing a cohesive framework. Let’s embark on this insightful journey together!
In discussing how Islamic thought can contribute to today’s knowledge economy, a 2016 article in the Monitor on Psychology called “Looking East” provides valuable insights. Dr. Susan McDaniel, president of the American Psychological Association (APA), emphasized that Western psychology can benefit from Eastern psychologies, which often include religious or spiritual beliefs. She called for a blend of Western science and Eastern thought, marking an important change in a field that has often been at odds with religion.
While early psychologists like William James valued religion, later movements dismissed its importance. Now, we are seeing a renewed interest in the role of spirituality in psychology, especially in practical areas like therapy.
Today, the West is eager to explore Eastern perspectives, which is especially important given the often limited representation of Muslim and Islamic viewpoints in current discussions. While some initial efforts are being made, it’s essential to further develop this research to keep it relevant in the 21st century.
Relatedly, much can be learned from the experience of Buddhist Psychology. An enormous amount of data has been collected on Buddhist thought and its therapeutic application, particularly as it relates to mindfulness, meditation, and yoga. It has been argued that these practices, to the dismay of many, have been secularized and unceremoniously extracted from the spiritual tradition from which they come. Be that as it may, they are now pervasive, with Westerners en masse having been exposed to the values and ethical principles that are embedded in these Buddhist and Hindu traditions, even if at only a superficial level. Islamic Psychology has within it concepts, practices and therapies that ‘parallel’ this. Imagine the potential transformative power on the negative perceptions people have about Islam if they had an opportunity to use and benefit from a concept, therapy, or practice that is embedded in an Islamic Psychology body of knowledge, even if it had to be in a somewhat secularized format.
8. Looking Forward
As Islamic Psychology develops, I recommend forming multidisciplinary teams for research. Psychologists often lack theological knowledge, while theologians generally do not study psychology, leading to different perspectives in the field. Collaborative teams can produce valuable work that is broad and deep.
I also suggest establishing a dedicated school or institute for Islamic Psychology. Several institutions exist for related fields, such as Transpersonal Psychology at Sofia University and Christian Psychology at Fuller Seminary. My goal is to create a nonprofit institute that serves as an international center for Islamic Psychology research and advocacy and offers the first APA-accredited graduate degree in this area.
Additionally, a professional association focused on developing Islamic Psychology globally could be helpful. This association could organize an annual conference and publish a peer-reviewed journal. Since my article in 2017, the International Association of Islamic Psychology has been established, hosting its first conference in Turkey in October 2018 and launching the Journal of Islamic Psychology.
The integration of Islamic principles into psychology has been growing for decades, and these new organizations will help advance the field.