More Than Meets the Eye – A Longstanding Presence

The story of Muslims in the United Kingdom is often perceived as a recent phenomenon, largely tied to post-World War II immigration. However, this perspective overlooks a rich and complex history of interaction that spans over a millennium. The presence and influence of Muslim-majority societies in the British Isles date back to at least the 8th century CE, demonstrating a deep historical interconnectedness that challenges modern misconceptions.¹

Early contact was multifaceted, involving trading links, diplomatic exchanges, and even instances of piracy.¹ A remarkable piece of evidence from this period is an 8th-century coin minted by Offa, the Anglo-Saxon King of Mercia. This coin featured an Arabic inscription, largely a copy of coins issued by a contemporary Abbasid ruler, Caliph Al-Mansur.² The existence of such an artifact fundamentally re-frames the understanding of Islam’s place in British history. It suggests that Islamic influence and presence are deeply embedded, predating large-scale migration by over a thousand years. This early cultural exchange indicates that the relationship between Britain and the Muslim world was dynamic and evolving, extending far beyond later colonial encounters or mass immigration. By the 16th century, Muslims from North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia were already present in London, contributing in various capacities as diplomats, translators, merchants, and musicians.² This long-standing interaction highlights that the story of Muslims in the UK is not merely about new arrivals, but about centuries of diverse connections that have continuously shaped the character and understanding of Islam within British society.

Early Footprints – From Ancient Links to Seafaring Tales

The 18th and 19th centuries marked a significant period for the growth of Muslim presence in Britain, largely driven by maritime connections and the expanding reach of the British Empire. As the British East India Company’s activities grew, so did its demand for sailors, particularly those known as lascars, to man its trading ships. These seamen primarily hailed from India, but also included individuals from Turkey, Arabia, Somalia, and Malaysia.³

Many lascars endured cruel treatment and poor conditions aboard these ships, leading a considerable number to “jump ship” and settle in major port cities across Britain. These early communities took root in places like London, Cardiff, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Tyneside, and Hull.³ The numbers of these settlers steadily increased, with an estimated 10,000 to 12,000

lascars present in Britain by the mid-19th century, a figure that doubled by the century’s end.³ This demographic shift illustrates a profound, albeit often unintended, consequence of British colonialism. The empire’s economic activities abroad, particularly its reliance on exploited labor, directly contributed to the establishment of the first significant Muslim communities within Britain itself, inadvertently shaping the nation’s multicultural future.

As these populations grew, dockland communities began to develop, with boarding houses emerging as crucial social and religious hubs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.¹ These establishments were not merely places to live; they became focal points for early Muslim community development, providing essential services and support to the migrants. It is important to note that these communities were not exclusively male. Local women often married the settlers and played a vital role in running these boarding houses, further integrating and sustaining these nascent communities.³ The consistent emergence of these port cities as settlement locations, coupled with the development of boarding houses, reveals that these areas were dynamic spaces where early Muslim life organically took root. This process highlights a localized, bottom-up approach to community building, where migrants adapted to their new environment by creating their own support structures and fostering a sense of collective identity.

Victorian Voices – Converts, Communities, and Early Mosques

The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a crucial phase in the formalization of Muslim religious life in Britain, marked by the establishment of the first mosques and the notable phenomenon of British individuals embracing Islam. Within the growing dockland communities, Muslims actively maintained their religious practices, including daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan, pilgrimage, and life-cycle rites. This commitment led them to invest in establishing formal facilities, such as mosques and dedicated burial arrangements.³

A landmark moment occurred in 1887 with the establishment of the first recorded mosque in the UK, located in Liverpool. This pioneering effort was led by Henry Quilliam, a British solicitor who had converted to Islam.¹ Quilliam’s Muslim Institute in Liverpool became a vibrant center, equipped with a printing press, a lecture hall, an orphanage, and a school, all aimed at establishing “Islam on a permanent footing” in the country.⁴ Shortly thereafter, the Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking, Surrey, became the first purpose-built mosque in England, constructed between 1888 and 1889. It was commissioned by Dr. Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner, a Hungarian-Jewish academic, to serve his Muslim students and visiting dignitaries, showcasing an early example of interfaith cooperation in building Islamic infrastructure.⁴ The simultaneous emergence of these informal community hubs (boarding houses) and formal institutions (mosques) demonstrates a maturing Muslim presence. The fact that the first mosque was founded by a convert and the first purpose-built mosque was commissioned by a non-Muslim academic highlights the diverse and often unexpected pathways through which Islam became formally established in Britain, indicating a complex interplay of internal and external forces.

The history of conversion to Islam in the UK is long, with instances dating back to the 16th century, sometimes referred to as “becoming a Turk”.³ However, the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a notable rise in “elite” British converts. These were often travelers, administrators, and intellectuals who encountered Islam through their experiences abroad. Prominent figures included:

• Henry Quilliam: A pivotal figure who converted in Morocco in the 1880s and returned to establish the Liverpool mosque and Muslim Institute.³ Despite facing hostility, he converted hundreds of locals.⁴
• Lord Headley (Roland Allison Win): An aristocrat, editor, and traveler who embraced Islam in the 1890s after encountering it in Kashmir. He became the President of the British Muslim Society from 1914, viewing Islam as a religion of tolerance.³
• Marmaduke Pickthall: A successful novelist and linguist who converted in 1917. He produced one of the first popular English translations of the Qur’an in 1930, which was later endorsed by Al-Azhar University.²
• Lady Evelyn Cobbold: A notable woman convert who spent her childhood in Algeria and Egypt and converted in 1933 at the age of 65. She was among the first documented Western women to undertake the Hajj pilgrimage, chronicling her experiences in a book.³

The significant role played by these British converts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals that British Islam was never solely an immigrant phenomenon. These individuals actively shaped the early identity and infrastructure of Islam in Britain. Their intellectual and social standing contributed to legitimizing and popularizing Islam among certain segments of British society, demonstrating an internal, rather than purely external, growth of the faith.

Post-War Journeys – Building New Lives and Communities

The period following World War II marked a transformative era for Muslim communities in the UK, characterized by major waves of migration driven by a complex interplay of economic opportunities and global events. The flow of Muslim settlers, which had slowed between the two World Wars, saw its next significant surge beginning in the late 1940s.³ This era was primarily fueled by Britain’s acute post-war labor shortages, as the nation sought to rebuild its industries.³

Large numbers of men, and subsequently entire families, arrived from the Indian subcontinent, particularly from regions such as Punjab (India), Mirpur (Kashmir, Pakistan), and Sylhet (Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan).³ These migrants largely came seeking better economic opportunities and work, rather than fleeing persecution.³ Pakistani migrants, for instance, found employment in crucial industrial sectors, including textile factories in Lancashire and Yorkshire, and car and engineering factories in the West Midlands and Birmingham. The construction of the Mangla Dam in 1966, which submerged large parts of Mirpur, further accelerated emigration from that area.³ Similarly, large-scale Bangladeshi settlement, particularly from the Sylhet region, became prominent in the early 1970s as people fled civil unrest in their homeland, settling primarily in East London boroughs like Tower Hamlets.³

This period was characterized by “chain migration,” a process where early pioneers were joined by relatives and friends from their home villages, leading to rapid community growth.³ The South Asian population in the UK expanded from just a few thousand males in the late 1940s to over 400,000 by 1971. This later influx included women, children, and older people, many of whom arrived before the introduction of the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act, which aimed to restrict entry.³ The prospect of this restrictive legislation actually accelerated migration in the 1960s, as people sought to enter before the doors closed.⁸ This demonstrates a complex interplay where historical relationships, economic imperatives, and legislative changes (and the anticipation of them) profoundly shaped the demographic landscape of the UK. These communities predominantly settled in major industrial areas across the Midlands, London, and the North of England, forming some of the UK’s largest Muslim concentrations in cities like Bradford, Birmingham, Blackburn, Dewsbury, and Tower Hamlets.³

In the late 1960s and 1970s, a distinct group known as “twice-migrants” arrived. These were Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim families of South Asian origin who had previously settled in British colonies in East Africa (e.g., Kenya, Uganda). They migrated to the UK after facing restrictions or expulsion due to “Africanisation” policies in newly independent countries.³ From the 1980s onwards, global civil wars and political unrest in Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Eastern Europe triggered new waves of asylum seekers and refugees. This included Muslims from Algeria, Libya, Somalia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Bosnia.³ For example, Libyan political exiles fleeing the Gaddafi regime in the 1980s settled in cities like Manchester, London, and Sheffield, with many finding professional work in healthcare, education, and engineering.³ The diverse origins and reasons for migration—from economic opportunities to seeking refuge due to decolonization or conflict—highlight that Muslim migration to the UK was not a single, uniform event but a continuous, multi-layered process deeply intertwined with global political and economic shifts. This illustrates the UK’s role as a destination shaped by worldwide historical events.

Chapter 4: A Diverse Landscape – Modern Demographics and Growing Presence

Today, Islam stands as the second-largest religion in the United Kingdom, reflecting centuries of evolving presence and recent significant growth. According to the 2021 Census, there are just under 4 million Muslims in the UK, constituting 6.0% of the total population.² In England and Wales specifically, the Muslim population is 3.87 million, or 6.5% of the total.¹¹

The period between 2011 and 2021 saw a substantial increase of 1.16 million in the Muslim population of England and Wales. This growth alone accounted for approximately 33% of the total population increase in England and Wales during that decade, indicating a significant demographic shift within the country.¹¹ British Muslims also have the youngest average age among major religious groups in the UK, with a median age of 29 years, compared to 44 for the general population.² This significantly younger demographic implies a substantial demographic dividend for the UK, as this younger population is poised to contribute considerably to the workforce, potentially bridging labor market gaps and strengthening the national economy in the coming decades.

Geographically, Muslims are concentrated in certain urban areas. Greater London holds the largest Muslim population, with 1.3 million individuals, representing 15% of the city’s total population.² Other significant concentrations are found in cities like Birmingham (341,811), Bradford (166,846), the London Borough of Tower Hamlets (123,912), Manchester (122,962), and the London Borough of Newham (122,146).¹¹ While these concentrations exist, Muslims are also more dispersed across local authority districts compared to some other minority faith groups.¹¹

The British Muslim community is characterized by immense internal diversity in terms of national or ethnic origin, language, and sectarian identity.³ While South Asians (from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India) constitute the majority, there are also significant Turkish, Arab, and Somali communities.² Beyond immigrant communities, approximately 100,000 British converts from multiple ethnic backgrounds contribute to this diversity.² Reports suggest that around 6,000 Britons, predominantly women, choose to convert to Islam annually.² The majority of British Muslims adhere to Sunni Islam, but sizeable Shia and Ahmadiyya minorities are also present.² This detailed breakdown of diverse ethnic origins, linguistic variety, and sectarian affiliations actively challenges any simplistic or monolithic view of “the British Muslim community.” This internal heterogeneity underscores that “British Muslim” is an umbrella term encompassing a rich tapestry of cultures, traditions, and experiences, requiring a nuanced understanding rather than broad generalizations.

The following table illustrates the growth and key demographics of the UK Muslim population:

Chapter 5: Making a Mark – Contributions to British Society

British Muslims have made profound and diverse contributions to the social, cultural, and economic fabric of the UK, demonstrating their integral role throughout history and in contemporary society. Historically, their commitment to Britain is evident in significant sacrifices. A substantial number of Muslim soldiers and laborers fought for the United Kingdom during both the First and Second World Wars. Reports indicate that at least 2.5 million Muslim soldiers and laborers participated with Allied forces in WWI, and 5.5 million in WWII, with nearly 1.5 million killed in action.² During WWII, Muslims constituted up to 40% of the 2.5 million troops serving in the British Indian Army.² These historical contributions, particularly in defense of the nation, extend far beyond economic figures, demonstrating a deep level of societal integration and commitment, including significant personal sacrifice. This shows that Muslim identity is deeply intertwined with British national identity, challenging any notion of them being separate or external.

In contemporary Britain, the contributions of Muslims are vast and multi-faceted:

• Philanthropy and Community Service: British Muslims collectively contribute between £1.79 billion and £2.4 billion annually to charitable causes, a figure four times higher than the national average. They also volunteer time valued at £622 million per year. This philanthropy supports local initiatives such as food banks, homeless shelters, and educational programs, thereby strengthening community bonds across diverse groups.¹³
• Economic Impact: Muslim-owned businesses generate a substantial economic impact, contributing between £25 billion and £70 billion annually to the British economy, fostering job creation and innovation.¹³ The UK is also a global leader in Islamic finance, holding 85% of the European Islamic finance banking sector, with the industry valued at over £5 billion in the UK.¹³
• Public Service: Muslims are integral to public services, most prominently within the National Health Service (NHS). Their vital role was particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, where many served on the frontline at disproportionately higher risk, with some making the ultimate sacrifice. Mosques across the country also transformed into testing and vaccination hubs, undoubtedly saving thousands of lives.¹³
• Education: There has been a notable increase in educational attainment among British Muslims, with 32.3% holding degree-level qualifications in 2021, up from 24% in 2011. This progress is largely driven by Muslim women pursuing higher education.¹² This specific trend highlights a powerful internal dynamic within the British Muslim community, showcasing agency, ambition, and progress in overcoming potential societal or cultural barriers. It underscores a positive trend of empowerment that contributes to the broader human capital and social mobility of the UK.
• Culture and Arts: British Muslims enrich the UK’s vibrant cultural landscape through their traditions, festivals (such as Eid celebrations and open Iftar initiatives during Ramadan), and various artistic expressions. These events foster mutual understanding and bring communities together.¹⁴
• Civic Engagement: Muslims have consistently demonstrated leadership in bridging societal divides through initiatives like interfaith dialogue, community outreach programs, and “Visit My Mosque” days.¹⁴ Their increasing presence in politics, including Muslim Members of Parliament and London Assembly members, further reflects their active civic engagement.¹³
• Influential Figures: The community boasts numerous influential figures across academia, business, law, and politics.² Notable historical examples include Sake Dean Mahomet, who founded London’s first Indian restaurant in 1810 ², and contemporary academics like Professor Tariq Modood.¹⁵

Chapter 6: Navigating the Path – Challenges and the Road Ahead

Despite their deep roots and substantial contributions, British Muslim communities continue to navigate significant challenges, including issues of discrimination, identity, and socio-economic disparities. The most prominent among these is the rise of Islamophobia and hate speech.¹² The rate of Islamophobia notably increased sixfold following the New Zealand terrorist attacks in March 2019.¹² British Home Office data indicates that Muslims are the highest percentage of victims of attacks due to religious hatred, with over a third of all hate crimes across the UK targeting Muslims.¹²

Muslim youth, in particular, face prejudice, stereotyping, and hostility, often exacerbated by the rise of far-right ideologies and negative media coverage.¹⁶ They frequently experience a “dual identity” struggle, balancing their cultural and religious heritage with the expectations of broader British society, which can lead to feelings of confusion or alienation.¹⁶ This experience aligns with what some studies describe as a “social integration paradox”: as British Muslims become more integrated into society, their awareness of discrimination and racism often increases.¹² This suggests that integration does not necessarily eliminate prejudice but can, in fact, make its experience more acutely felt, leading to a “disconnect” between the expectations of a fair political system and the lived social reality for young Muslims.¹² This highlights that societal progress is not linear, and deeper, systemic issues of prejudice persist.

Socio-economic disparities remain a concern: 40% of Muslims in England reside in the most deprived neighborhoods, and a quarter of Muslim households in England and Wales suffer from overcrowding, a rate four times higher than the national average.¹¹ Muslims have also experienced higher unemployment rates compared to other groups.¹⁸ Health inequalities are also present, with approximately 29.9% of Muslim women over the age of 65 reporting poor or very poor health, compared to 13% of the general population.¹² Mental health issues are a significant concern, often stemming from the cumulative impact of Islamophobia, identity struggles, and social isolation. Accessing culturally sensitive mental health services remains a challenge.¹⁶ For some Muslim communities, such as Somali immigrants, challenges are compounded by multiple layers of discrimination, facing prejudice not only due to their religion but also because they are Black.¹⁷ This highlights the intersectional nature of prejudice, leading to unique and often more severe experiences of marginalization.

Historical events, such as the Salman Rushdie affair in 1989 ⁸ and the 2005 London bombings ¹⁷, significantly impacted public perception, creating negative stereotypes and increasing societal tensions, despite the fact that very few Muslims support terrorism.¹⁹

Legal frameworks have evolved to address discrimination, yet challenges persist. The Race Relations Act 1976, while groundbreaking, had limitations in directly addressing religious discrimination. Although some cases involving Jews and Sikhs were covered by stretching the definition of “ethnic group,” discrimination against Muslims could sometimes be addressed as “indirect racial discrimination” if linked to their country of origin.¹⁸ The Equality Act 2010 replaced previous anti-discrimination laws, aiming to simplify and strengthen protections. It explicitly protects individuals from discrimination based on religion or belief, including discrimination between different sects within Islam (e.g., Sunni or Shia).²¹ However, despite these legal advancements, Muslim Members of Parliament and activists continue to call for strengthening the Equality Act to specifically address Islamophobia.²² Concerns also persist that new anti-extremism laws risk disproportionately targeting Muslim communities and potentially impacting freedom of speech.²³ This progression of legal frameworks, from the limited Race Relations Act to the more comprehensive Equality Act, and the ongoing debates, indicate that legal solutions are not static but are part of an ongoing societal negotiation.

Efforts to combat these challenges include promoting cultural awareness and tolerance through education, creating safe spaces for youth, improving access to culturally sensitive mental health services, and advocating for policy reform to address systemic inequalities.¹⁶

Conclusion: An Enduring Part of the British Story

The history of Muslims in the UK is far older and more continuous than commonly perceived, spanning over a millennium of diverse interactions and influences. From early diplomatic and trading links to the establishment of the first communities by seafaring lascars and British converts, the narrative of Islam in Britain is deeply woven into the national fabric.

Significant waves of migration, driven by a complex interplay of colonial legacies, economic demands, and global geopolitical events, have profoundly shaped the demographic and cultural landscape of modern Britain. Today, British Muslims constitute a large, vibrant, and internally diverse community, characterized by a youthful demographic that is poised to continue contributing significantly across all sectors of British society, from the economy and public services to culture and philanthropy.

Despite their deep roots and substantial contributions, Muslim communities continue to navigate persistent challenges, including Islamophobia, socio-economic disparities, and identity struggles. These challenges highlight the ongoing need for greater societal understanding, continued efforts towards integration, and robust policy action to ensure equity and inclusion. Ultimately, the story of Muslims in the UK is a powerful testament to their resilience, adaptability, and enduring commitment to building a shared future, reflecting Britain’s broader journey as a multicultural and evolving nation.