When people talk about Muslims living in Western countries today, they often think it’s a new thing, mostly because of immigration after World War II. But if we look closely at history, we find a much longer and richer story, going back over a thousand years. This report will explore the deep history of Muslims in the West, from their important role in medieval Europe to the many different groups who moved to North America and Australia in more recent times. We’ll look at their big contributions, how their identities have changed, and the ongoing difficulties they face.

History shows that Muslims were present in Southern Europe as early as the 700s. The Muslim conquest of Spain led to strong Muslim governments in areas we now call Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Malta.¹ This happened much earlier than many people realize. In North America, some records suggest Muslims were there as early as the 1300s, possibly Moors (Muslims from Spain) who were forced to leave, or even Portuguese Muslim sailors in the 1100s.² The first Muslim we know for sure, Estevanico of Azamor, arrived in the early 1500s.² Importantly, the first large group of Muslims in the United States were enslaved Africans. It’s thought that between 10% and 50% of the ten million Africans brought here by force were Muslim.² In Australia, historical records show Muslims had contact from the early 1600s through Makassar fishermen, and permanent settlement began in the 1860s with Afghan camel drivers.⁴

This long history shows that Muslims in the West aren’t just about recent immigration. It includes times of great political and cultural power, like in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain), and also forced journeys through the slave trade. This helps us understand “Muslim presence” in a much broader way, showing how Islam has been a part of Western societies for centuries in many different forms. This deeper historical look helps correct common, narrower ideas, setting a tone that highlights a long, often forgotten, or ignored history.

The Beginning in Spain: Al-Andalus (700s-1400s)

The first major Muslim presence in Western Europe started in 711 CE when an army of Arabs and Berbers, united by their Islamic faith, crossed into Spain. In less than ten years, they took control of most of the Iberian Peninsula, calling the land Al-Andalus.⁶ Historical accounts suggest that many Spanish people accepted Muslim rule willingly, and a good number converted to Islam.⁷ While Muslim troops went deepest into Western Europe in 732 CE, being stopped at Poitiers, Muslim writers often saw this as a small fight, unlike how important it became in Western stories.⁷ When an independent Muslim state was set up in Córdoba in 756 CE, which later claimed the title of “Caliph” (leader of the Muslim world) in 929 CE, it marked a golden age of political power and set the stage for the region’s amazing culture and learning.⁷

Al-Andalus was a very accepting and diverse society. Arab and Amazigh (Berber) immigrants lived peacefully alongside Spanish Muslims, Christians, and Jews, and people often married across these groups.⁷ This time, often called the “western edge of Islam,” was geographically separate but culturally lively, becoming a source of medieval legends.⁶

The cultural and intellectual impact of Al-Andalus was incredibly lasting, continuing even after Muslim rule ended in 1492 and influencing Spain and the rest of the world. Modern Spain is increasingly recognizing and being proud of this great period in its history.⁷ You can see a big language impact in many Spanish place names, like Algeciras (from “al-Jazirah al-Khadra’,” meaning green island), the Guadalquivir River (from “al-Wadi al-Kabir,” meaning great river), and the region of Andalusia itself, all coming from Arabic. A large part of Spanish words also come from Arabic, and many of these words later made their way into English.⁷

In terms of buildings, some of Spain’s most famous landmarks, like the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Seville’s Giralda, and Granada’s Alhambra, were built during the Muslim period. Muslim building styles, using tiles and stucco, central courtyards, detailed patterns, and clever water features, greatly influenced architecture in southern Spain and Latin America. Even after the Reconquista (the Christian reconquest), Muslim artists and builders continued to be hired by Spanish nobles, and their work can still be seen today, for example, in Seville’s royal palace, the Alcázar.⁷

The music of Al-Andalus, directly from Arab styles, deeply influenced Spanish and, later, Latin American music through its instruments, rhythms, and singing styles. Some Andalusian tunes have been kept exactly as they were, and the classical music of North Africa is still known as “Andalusi music”.⁷

In philosophy and science, Al-Andalus was a key place for sharing knowledge. The works of important thinkers from the region, like Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), al-Zahrawi, and Ibn Zuhr, were translated from Arabic into Latin.⁷ These translations were vital in bringing philosophical and scientific ideas from the ancient Greek and Roman worlds—which Muslim scholars had carefully saved and expanded upon—into European thought, helping to start both the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.⁷ For example, Averroes’s comments on Aristotle and his ideas about how reason and religion connect were similar to the later work of Thomas Aquinas.⁷ Al-Zahrawi’s detailed writings on surgery, medicines, and medical ethics, including descriptions of over 200 surgical tools, were used in European medical schools for centuries.⁸

Literary works also thrived, with Ibn Hazm’s “Tawq al-Hamamah” expanding traditional love poetry, and the courtly muwashshah poetry style influencing North African literature and music.⁷

The end of Muslim rule in 1492, when Ferdinand and Isabella expelled them, brought nearly eight centuries of Muslim presence in Spain to a close.⁶ The immediate effects were most strongly felt in the big cities of North Africa, where many refugees from Al-Andalus fled, bringing new life to North African culture.⁷ Al-Andalus holds a sad but important place in the Arab and Muslim worlds, often called “al-firdaws al-mafijud” – paradise lost – symbolizing the unique pain of losing a land that was once Muslim but is no longer.⁷

The historical truth of Al-Andalus as a “uniquely tolerant and diverse” society, where different faiths and cultures lived together and intermarried, shows a powerful example of how people can coexist. However, its violent end with expulsion highlights how fragile such harmony can be when faced with movements for political and religious unity. This offers an important historical lesson about the difficulties of keeping multicultural societies alive, showing that even times of great tolerance can be overcome by forces that seek to exclude. The fact that the cultural and intellectual legacy of Al-Andalus “survived” and that “modern Spain has increasingly recognized and taken pride in this glorious period” suggests that this influence might have been downplayed or ignored for centuries after the Reconquista. This points to a new look at national identity and a more open approach to history in today’s Spain. Al-Andalus serves as a strong double symbol: it represents an inspiring example of intellectual growth and interfaith harmony, a “golden age” for Muslim civilization, while its loss also means a unique historical trauma, a lasting emotional wound that shapes collective memory and identity in the wider Islamic world.

Medieval Connections: Islamic Gifts to Europe

During the Middle Ages, the Islamic world played a key role in global cultural progress, acting as an important bridge for information and ideas to Europe.⁸ Important places for this exchange of knowledge included Sicily, where a mix of Norman, Arab, and Byzantine cultures thrived, Al-Andalus (especially Toledo after Christians took it over in 1085), and the Crusader kingdoms in the Middle East.⁸ Even with ongoing wars, the Crusades increased trade and cultural sharing, with Italian merchant cities playing a big part in connecting Europe with the Middle East.⁹ Notably, many Christian scholars, including famous people like Leonardo Fibonacci, Adelard of Bath, and Constantine the African, traveled to Muslim lands in the 1000s and 1100s specifically to study sciences.⁸

The deep impact of Islamic civilization on European knowledge and development is clear. Muslim scholars were crucial in saving, translating, and adding to old Greek and Roman texts, protecting a huge amount of knowledge that directly helped the European Renaissance and Enlightenment.⁸ Many old Greek texts, especially Aristotle’s works, were translated into Syriac and then Arabic, later making their way into Latin through scholars like Gerard of Cremona.⁸ Learning centers in the Islamic world, like Baghdad’s “House of Wisdom,” started by Caliph al-Ma’mun, were dedicated to translating and research, holding thousands of old books.¹¹

In philosophy, the ideas of Avicenna and Averroes greatly influenced European thinkers, changing subjects like natural philosophy (study of nature), psychology, and metaphysics (study of reality). Averroes, in particular, influenced the rise of secular (non-religious) thought and developed the idea that “existence comes before essence”.⁸

Scientific advances shared with Europe were significant and widespread.⁸ In math and astronomy, new ideas in algebra (from Al-Khwarizmi, which gave us the word “algorithm”) and spherical trigonometry were introduced. Leonardo Fibonacci’s

Liber Abaci gave Europe its first full explanation of Arabic numerals and the Hindu-Arabic number system. Studying the stars grew in the Islamic world, leading to advanced observatories and tools.⁸ Many traditional star names in Western languages, like Aldebaran, are Arabic words.⁸ In optics (the study of light), Ibn al-Haytham’s

Book of Optics (1021) developed a theory of vision and light that disagreed with earlier ideas, greatly influencing later European scientists like Roger Bacon and Johannes Kepler, and even affecting art through linear perspective.⁸ Western alchemy (early chemistry) relied directly on Arabic writings from people like Jabir ibn Hayyan and al-Razi, with technical Arabic words such as “alkali” entering European languages.⁸

In medicine, important works like Avicenna’s The Canon of Medicine and al-Razi’s Comprehensive Book of Medicine were used as standard textbooks in Europe for centuries.⁸ Muslim hospitals, called bimaristans, were centuries ahead of European ones, offering free treatment and inspiring European medical schools with ideas like separate wards for men and women, patient records, pharmacies, and a strong focus on cleanliness.⁸ Notably, tests for doctors to get licenses were used in Baghdad as early as 931 A.D., centuries before similar practices in the West.¹⁴

The organized and well-structured madrasas (Islamic schools) in great learning centers like Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, and Cordoba served as basic models for the development of European universities and educational institutions.¹¹

Cultural exchange and the spread of technology were just as important. Islamic decorative arts, including fabrics and pottery, were highly valued imports in Europe and greatly influenced Western art, as did Islamic calligraphy (beautiful writing), geometric patterns, and arabesque designs.⁸ The copying of Arabic Kufic script, called pseudo-Kufic, appeared as decoration in Western art, including in paintings by Giotto.⁸ In farming, various fruits and vegetables, such as artichoke, spinach, eggplant, rice, cotton, and sugar cane, were brought to Europe through the Middle East and North Africa, along with advanced irrigation systems like the qanat and falaj.⁸ European musical instruments like the rebec and naker were influenced by Arabic instruments, and some scholars suggest Arabic origins for the troubadour (traveling poet-musician) tradition.⁸ General technological adoptions included the spinning wheel, advanced gears in water clocks, surgical tools, and distillation, which gave us words like “alcohol” and “alembic”.⁸ Furthermore, Europeans learned basic hygiene, including the idea of public baths (hamams), from Muslims. People from Al-Andalus like Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Nafi introduced underarm deodorants and better laundry detergents, and also changed Spanish cooking, introducing the multi-course meal style that became standard in the West.¹¹ Islamic coins also influenced medieval European coin making, for example, the English king Offa of Mercia made coins that were almost copies of Abbasid dinars.⁸

The idea that Islamic civilization “led Europe out of dark ages into the era of Enlightenment and gave rise to its Renaissance” ¹¹ is a very important point. The detailed evidence of how classical knowledge was saved, translated, and improved, along with original scientific contributions, shows that the Islamic world was not just a parallel civilization or a passive carrier of old texts. It was an active, powerful force that provided major intellectual and technological drive for key European historical changes. This challenges a view of European development that only focuses on Europe and highlights a deeply connected intellectual history. The impact of Islamic civilization went beyond single inventions or ideas to the transfer of entire systems and ways of organizing things, like hospitals, universities (madrasas), and professional licensing. This wasn’t just about borrowing specific knowledge but adopting basic structures and professional standards that became the foundation of modern Western institutions, showing a deeper, more structural influence than often recognized. Islam played a complex role as an “other” in the development of Western modernity, at first seen as an “alternative model” to the Church but later criticized.¹⁹ This changing and often contradictory relationship means that how Islam is seen in the West has changed over time, shifting between a source of inspiration and a perceived threat, and these shifts have greatly influenced how the West sees itself and its policies towards Muslims.

Modern Waves of Migration: Europe

The large-scale movement of Muslims to Europe after World War II was mostly an “unintended consequence” of programs that brought in “guest workers” to fill big labor shortages.²⁰ These foreign workers, who were first meant to be temporary, became permanent residents through programs that allowed families to reunite.²⁰ Today, Muslims make up the majority of immigrants in many Western European countries, including Belgium, France, Germany, and the Netherlands, and are the largest single immigrant group in the United Kingdom.²⁰ While they were generally welcomed in the 1960s and early 1970s because of the strong need for workers, negative reactions, like fears of losing jobs, were already starting to appear.²¹ Migration after colonial rule also played a big part, for example, France’s Muslim immigration happened during the Algerian War ²¹, and the Netherlands saw population changes because of decolonization.²²

It’s estimated that between 15 and 20 million Muslims now live in Europe, making up 4% to 5% of its total population. Projections suggest this number could double by 2025 due to continued immigration and higher birth rates.²⁰ In some major EU cities, Muslim populations are over 20%.²³ Europe’s Muslim communities are very diverse, shaped by different historical situations, including colonial pasts, economic migration, and more recently, the arrival of people seeking asylum and highly skilled professionals.²⁴

European Muslims became permanent residents and were then subject to various policies to help them fit into their new countries.²⁵ Early 1900s beliefs that immigrants could blend in within two to three generations turned out to be too hopeful; it was later understood that immigrants, even when they integrate, often keep specific cultural parts from their home countries.²⁵ Governments have increasingly made formal efforts to work with Muslim communities, often leading to the creation of “national Muslim councils.” Examples include Germany’s Islam Conference (2006), Belgium’s recognition of Islam as a religious community (1974), France’s Conseil Français du Culte Musulman (2003), and Spain’s Comisión Islámica de España (1992).²⁴ Policies about Islamic education show unique national situations, from state-regulated Islamic programs in public schools to support for private Islamic schools, along with efforts to train imams (religious leaders) who understand European culture.²⁶

The “unintended consequence” of post-WWII guest-worker programs highlights a big mistake in policy. The initial temporary nature of these programs, followed by family reunification, created permanent communities that host nations weren’t fully ready to integrate, leading to ongoing problems. Many of the current integration challenges and public worries in Europe come from this historical misjudgment. The failure to expect or plan for permanent settlement created a policy gap, where integration strategies were developed only after problems arose, rather than in advance, contributing to ideas of “poor integration” ²³ and ongoing social tensions. Many Western European countries, known for their strong non-religious traditions, face a basic conflict when trying to integrate a visibly religious minority like Muslims. Policies about religious education, bans on head coverings ²⁷, and limits on building mosques ²⁷ show this clash between non-religious values and religious accommodation. The expectation that religion would become a strictly private matter, like in European secularization, clashed with the reality of strong and public religious identity among Muslims. This basic cultural and political disconnect has led to heated debates and policies that are often seen as an “attack on Islam,” making integration problems worse instead of solving them.

Modern Waves of Migration: North America

While the exact arrival date is not clear, some historians suggest an early Muslim presence in North America as early as the 1300s, possibly involving Moors expelled from Spain, or even Portuguese Muslim sailors in the 1100s.² Estevanico of Azamor, a Moroccan guide who traveled with Spanish explorers in the early 1500s, is often named as the first documented Muslim in America.² The first large group of Muslims in the United States were enslaved Africans. It’s estimated that 10% to 50% of the ten million Africans brought against their will were Muslim.² Keeping their religion was incredibly hard, with many forced to convert to Christianity. Efforts to practice Islam and keep traditional clothing and names often had to be done in secret.² Despite these huge challenges, a group of African-Americans on the Georgia coast managed to keep their faith until the early 1900s.² Historical records celebrate people like Bilalia Fula and Al Haj Omar Ibn Said, who kept their Islamic heritage and made important contributions.³ The significant presence of enslaved African Muslims is a critically overlooked and foundational part of Muslim history in North America, establishing a hidden yet strong Islamic root in the continent. This forced migration laid an “invisible foundation” of Islam in the West, happening before and being different from later voluntary immigration waves, challenging the common idea that American Islam is only an immigrant religion.

Between 1878 and 1924, many Muslim immigrants, mostly from Syria and Lebanon, came to the United States looking for better economic opportunities. Many settled in states like Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, and the Dakotas.² These immigrants often worked as manual laborers; the Ford Company was notably one of the first big employers of both Muslims and Black individuals, who were often willing to work in tough factory conditions.²

The Great Migration of Black Americans to the North helped spark an African-American Islam revival and the growth of the African-American Muslim Nationalist Movement, which aimed to bring back the culture and faith that had been suppressed during slavery.² Important early 1900s movements included the Moorish Science Temple of America (MSTA), a movement mostly of African Americans, and the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, which produced and translated important religious books.²⁸ The Nation of Islam (NOI), active from 1930 to 1975, became the largest and most influential Muslim American movement, focusing on economic empowerment and self-reliance for Black Americans. Malcolm X was a key figure. After Elijah Muhammad’s death in 1975, a large part of the NOI community, led by Warith Deen Muhammad, switched to Sunni Islam.²⁸ The rise of distinct African-American Muslim movements alongside later, diverse immigrant communities shows a complex internal variety and changing development within the North American Muslim experience. This indicates that “Muslims in North America” is not one single group but a mix of different historical paths, religious interpretations, and social-political goals, with African-American Muslims forming a unique and influential part.

The Hart-Celler Act of 1965 greatly opened up immigration from non-European countries, leading to a big increase in Muslim immigrants from the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia. Because of the law’s rules, these immigrants were mostly upper-class and well-educated.²⁸ New groups of Muslims arrived after 1952 from places like Palestine (after 1948), Iraq, and Egypt, followed by Southeast Asian Muslims in the 1960s, and others from Africa, Asia, and Latin America.² The estimated number of Muslims in the U.S. varied widely in the early 2000s, from 1.1 million to 5 million.² Muslims in America have increasingly become part of mainstream society economically, socially, and politically.²⁹ The Muslim population is notably young, with a strong focus on education; 31% are full-time students, and 25% are in college, which is higher than the general public. Muslim women are more likely to go to college than men.²⁹ Muslims have high employment rates in various jobs, including doctors, lawyers, engineers, and business owners, and their household income is similar to the general public.²⁹ The less strict job markets in the U.S. compared to Europe are seen as a reason for higher employment rates for immigrants, including Muslims.³⁰ Citizenship is a key part of fitting in, creating a greater sense of belonging and encouraging participation in politics and professions.³⁰

Modern Waves of Migration: Australia

Muslims first arrived in Australia in the early 1600s, mainly Makassar fishermen and traders looking for tripang (sea cucumber).⁴ There is also evidence of Muslims entering Australia as settlers and convicts as early as 1802.⁴ The first significant group of Muslims settled in the 1860s with the arrival of Afghan camel drivers and their families, who played a crucial role in developing Australia’s interior.⁴

Australia’s historical “white-only” immigration policy greatly shaped its Muslim population until the 1970s. Because of this policy, very few Muslims were allowed to enter, mostly those of Afghan and Malay origin, with a small number of Albanians arriving after World War I.⁴ Numbers slowly increased in the 1970s once the “white-only” policy was removed, allowing immigration from non-European countries.⁴ The civil war in Lebanon in the late 1970s led to a significant number of Lebanese migrants settling in Australia.⁴ A series of global crises and conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq War, problems in Afghanistan, the first Gulf War, civil war in Somalia, and growing extremism in Pakistan, further increased the Muslim presence.⁴ This shows how clear government policies can control the makeup and later integration challenges of immigrant communities over long periods. Australia’s unique historical immigration policies created a distinct pattern of Muslim settlement, meaning that the specific challenges and successes of integration in Australia are directly linked to a history of racial exclusion and its later removal.

As of 2013, just over 2% of Australia’s population identified as Muslim. Of these, 61.5% were immigrants, and 39.5% were born in Australia (second-generation Muslims).⁴ The immigrant population comes from 183 countries, with nearly half of Australian-born Muslims having Lebanese and Turkish backgrounds.⁴ Most Australian Muslims live in cities, with 75% concentrated in Sydney and Melbourne.⁴

The experiences of Muslims adapting and integrating into Australia are complex, showing both successful adjustment and significant challenges.⁴ Research indicates that for most Muslims, the adaptation process is not a problem, and most integrate well.⁴ Many report a “blended identity,” feeling they can be both good Muslims and good Australians, and most report having a bicultural identity.⁴ Muslims generally value Australian institutions, including democratic and legal systems, and appreciate the education and healthcare systems.⁴ They contribute to Australian society in many areas, including economic development, and show high English language skills.⁴ Surveys suggest that most are loyal to their adopted country, with 74% identifying as Australian in a 2015 report.⁴ Australian Muslims have set up many institutions, such as restaurants, businesses, about 100 mosques, and 30 Islamic schools, using their bicultural identity to improve their communities.⁴

Despite these successes, significant challenges and stress from adapting persist.⁴ Since the 9/11 terror attacks, Muslims report being seen as a threat, with global terror activities and negative media fueling prejudice.⁴ Economic disadvantages are clear, including language barriers, job discrimination (less likely to get jobs or interviews), and financial hardship, leading to 27% of Australian Muslim children living in poverty.⁴ Economic marginalization and a feeling of being deprived are thought to contribute to being vulnerable to “radicalization”.⁴ Muslims in Australia tend to feel less safe and worry about their future security. Negative media often shows them as uneducated, misinformed traitors, and terrorist sympathizers, strengthening the idea that Muslims don’t fit in.⁴ Muslim women, especially those wearing headscarves or face veils, report more prejudiced treatment, and suspicion has increased towards those who appear to be from the Muslim world.⁴ Government policies, particularly “War on terror” campaigns, have led to surveillance, questioning, and demands for Muslim leaders and schools to teach “Australian” values, which are seen as an intrusion and increase stress.⁴ Media and government policies have contributed to rising rates of Islamophobia, which is an unfounded fear, prejudice, and stereotypical thinking, creating an “us versus them” mentality.⁴ Despite facing big challenges like negative perceptions after 9/11 and rising Islamophobia, a large majority of Australian Muslims report a “blended identity” and strong loyalty to Australia. This suggests a successful, evolving process of identity formation where “Australian” and “Muslim” are not seen as mutually exclusive, showing resilience in the face of outside pressures.

Islamic education in Australia has changed from early informal teaching in mosques and homes (from the 1600s) to organized informal education through Islamic groups and weekend schools in the 1900s.⁵ Formal Islamic schools started in the 1970s because of the growing Muslim population, aiming to provide religious teachings, freedom in Islamic dress, halal food, and proper social ethics.⁵ The growth of Islamic education gained speed in the mid-1990s, with 30 institutions recorded by 2004, mostly in New South Wales and Victoria.⁵ These schools follow the local education system with extra religious content. They face challenges like ethnic diversity among students and accusations of promoting anti-Australian feelings after 9/11, but an open system aims to encourage understanding and tolerance.⁵

Fitting In, Identity, and Challenges in the Modern West

Finding a sense of belonging in the modern West is a complex picture for Muslim communities, with different levels of success and ongoing challenges across various regions. In North America, Muslim immigrants in the United States are generally fitting in well. American Muslims often have similar or better economic status and education levels than the average American. They are increasingly active in community and political life.³⁰ There’s a strong focus on education, especially among young Muslims and women, leading to high rates of college enrollment.²⁹ Muslims have high employment rates in various jobs, including doctors, lawyers, engineers, and business owners, and their household income is similar to the general public.²⁹ The less strict job markets in the U.S. compared to Europe are seen as a reason for higher employment rates for immigrants, including Muslims.³⁰ Citizenship is a key part of fitting in, creating a greater sense of belonging and encouraging participation in politics and professions.³⁰

In Europe, fitting in is a more mixed story. While there are signs of success in business and education in countries like France and Germany, many experts say most of Western Europe’s Muslims are not well integrated. They point to separate ethnic neighborhoods, high crime rates in Muslim communities, calls for Islamic law (Sharia), and the wearing of the veil as examples of conflict with European values.²³ Muslims in Europe are actively trying to find ways to balance “being Muslim and Western, not Muslim or Western”.²³ More religious involvement among Muslims is linked to lower rates of skipping school, drug use, and criminal activity.²³ However, unemployment rates for some Muslim women (e.g., Pakistani and Bangladeshi) are notably high, often blamed on poor job and language skills, and a lack of childcare.²³ Despite these challenges, some experts hope for the rise of a “stronger Euro-Islam identity” as Muslims continue to grow into European culture.²³

There’s often a big gap between what many Muslims actually experience and what society generally believes, especially in Europe. Public discussions often highlight “poor integration” despite evidence of economic success and a strong desire for a blended identity among many Muslims in North America and Australia.⁴ This suggests that the “integration problem” isn’t just a failure of Muslim communities but also a failure of host societies to adapt to and accept diversity. This is often driven by existing biases and fears rather than facts.

The rise and impact of Islamophobia (fear or hatred of Islam and Muslims) and discrimination are major challenges. Islamophobia is defined as an unreasonable fear of, hostility towards, or hatred against Islam or Muslims, often stereotyping them as a global threat or source of terrorism.³¹ It shows up through physical or verbal attacks on people (especially those with visible religious identity like a hijab or niqab), property, and places of worship, as well as online threats and insults.³¹ This isn’t just individual prejudice but acts as a “form of racism” ³¹ that systematically “marks as an outsider” even those born and raised in Western countries.³⁴ This means that Islamophobia is a changing, socially created problem used to keep existing power differences and define national identity by excluding others.

Systemic discrimination is common, including policies and laws that indirectly target or unfairly affect Muslims (e.g., bans on visible religious symbols, face coverings, minarets). Discrimination is clear in education, jobs, housing, and access to goods and services. Ethnic and religious profiling, along with police abuse, are also noted.²⁷ Studies show that people with Muslim names are less likely to get job offers that match their qualifications, struggle to find housing, and experience unequal access to healthcare.³⁴ Students from Muslim backgrounds often need to perform twice as well as their peers to get the same academic and professional recognition.³⁴

Increased Islamophobia is linked to racist-like stereotypes spreading in Western media since the 1990s, the “war on terror” after 9/11, the rise of ISIS, and terrorist attacks by extremists. Public worry about immigration and integration, made worse by economic problems (e.g., the 2007 crash) and the rise of populist nationalist politicians, also fuels these feelings.³¹ The impact on identity is deep; Muslim minorities are often shown as “not belonging” and wanting to separate from mainstream society. Even if they are born and raised in Western countries, they may be seen as outsiders.³³ Islamophobia is increasingly seen as an “inherited essence” that prevents full integration.³⁴ Some Muslims may show a stronger Islamic identity in response to feeling isolated.²³

Several important events have greatly shaped modern Muslim experiences. The 1979 Iranian Revolution significantly increased anti-Muslim hostility in the United States and helped create the stereotype that all Muslim Americans were immigrants from the Middle East.²⁸ The 9/11 attacks in 2001 dramatically increased anti-Muslim backlash and linked Islam to terrorism worldwide.²⁸ While fueling negative perceptions, these attacks also encouraged the creation and strengthening of nationwide Muslim civil rights and advocacy organizations in the U.S..²⁸ They raised concerns about internal security and Western values ³² and contributed to counter-terrorism measures that sometimes limited civil liberties.³³ Terrorist attacks in Europe (e.g., Madrid 2004, London 2005, Paris, Brussels, Barcelona), often carried out by Muslim citizens or residents, increased public worries and raised critical questions about how well integration policies were working and how easily some parts of Muslim populations could be radicalized.³³ The rise of white nationalism has further increased fears of Islam, often showing it as a major threat to Western civilization.²⁹ These global events are a double-edged sword: while they fuel negative perceptions and discrimination, they also encourage community action and stronger civil rights advocacy within Muslim communities.

In response to these dynamics, governments have introduced new citizenship laws, language requirements, and efforts to encourage dialogue with Muslim organizations and develop “homegrown” imams. Efforts are also being made to improve educational and economic opportunities for Muslims while fighting racism and discrimination.³⁵ However, some policies, like France’s burqa ban or Switzerland’s minaret ban, have been criticized as attacks on Islam.²⁷ Muslim communities across the West have actively built institutions, setting up mosques, schools, and cultural centers.² The early 2000s saw the growth of “third spaces,” like art spaces and online groups, that offered community for Muslims who felt disconnected from more traditional mosque settings.²⁸ In Europe, there’s a growing push for standardized Islamic education programs, reflecting the unique political and cultural situations of each nation.²⁶ Islamic schools in Australia, for example, combine the local education system with extra religious content, aiming to encourage understanding and tolerance.⁵

Conclusion

The history of Muslims living in the West is a rich, complex, and deeply connected story, much more than what is commonly understood today. From the important political and cultural power of Al-Andalus in medieval Europe to the many different waves of modern migration across North America and Australia, the presence of Muslims has shaped Western societies in deep and lasting ways.

This analysis shows that Muslim contributions to Western civilization, especially during the European Middle Ages, were not just minor but foundational. The saving and sharing of classical knowledge, along with groundbreaking advances in science, medicine, philosophy, and technology, actively pushed Europe towards its Renaissance and Enlightenment. This historical truth means we need to rethink common stories, highlighting how global intellectual development is connected.

Modern Muslim experiences in the West are marked by diverse migration patterns, leading to different integration outcomes. While communities in North America and Australia often show strong economic integration and a developing blended identity, Europe presents a more mixed picture, often struggling with the challenges of integrating a visibly religious minority within non-religious systems.

A widespread challenge across all Western areas is the rise of Islamophobia. This problem is not just individual prejudice but a systematic way that continues discrimination, exclusion, and unfair treatment, often defining national identity by treating Muslims as “outsiders.” Global events, while fueling this anti-Muslim feeling, have also, surprisingly, strengthened Muslim civil rights advocacy and community action, fostering resilience and a dynamic re-assertion of identity.

Ultimately, the history of Muslims in the West is a testament to continuous adaptation, contribution, and the ongoing search for belonging. Understanding this complex past is crucial for navigating the difficulties of today’s multicultural societies and building more inclusive futures.