Discovering the Rich History of Arabic

Arabic is one of the world’s most important and widely spoken languages. This shows its deep history and cultural importance. About 420 million people speak it as their first language, and it’s an official language in 26 countries in the Middle East and North Africa. ¹ Besides that, over two billion Muslims around the world use Arabic for their religious prayers, which highlights its spiritual importance. ² In the past, Arabic was a main way for culture and learning to spread, especially in science, math, and philosophy during the Middle Ages. ¹

This report will look closely at the Arabic language, both its language features and its history. We will trace its beginnings from old Semitic languages and forms used before Islam. Then, we’ll see how it became standardized with the arrival of the Quran. After that, we’ll explore how it spread around the world through Islamic conquests and wide trade networks. We will also discuss why it split into different dialects and what challenges it faces today.

Old Roots and Forms Before Islam

The Arabic language is part of the Semitic group, which is a larger family of languages called Afroasiatic. ⁴ Among all the living Semitic languages, Arabic is thought to be one of the closest to Proto-Semitic, which is the original language from which all Semitic languages came. ² This close link is clear because Arabic has kept many features of Proto-Semitic, like a full system of grammar cases (ʾIʿrab). ² Because it has kept so many old features, Arabic is very valuable for studying and rebuilding Proto-Semitic. It gives us special insights into ancient language structures and shows how strong and stable it has been for thousands of years. The Semitic language family is generally divided into northern, eastern, and southern groups. Ancient Semitic speakers lived across Southwest Asia, including the Arabian Peninsula. ⁷

The very first signs of Arabic can be found as far back as the 8th century BCE, and some experts even suggest earlier forms around 2000 BCE. ⁴ The oldest known example, sometimes called pre-Historic Arabic, is a two-language inscription found in Bayir, Jordan. It’s written in an early North Arabian script (Thamudic B) along with Canaanite. ⁹ Written records of Arabic, like inscriptions, go back to the 4th century CE. ¹⁰ An important early example is the Namara inscription from 328 AD in Syria, which is an example of Nabataean Arabic mentioning King Imru al-Qays ibn Amr. ⁵

Different forms of Old Arabic are found in ancient writings, including Safaitic, Hismaic, and Nabataean. ⁵ These early forms are usually put into two groups: Old Arabic, spoken in the middle and southern Arabian Peninsula, and Old North Arabian, common in the northern areas. ¹⁰ Specifically, Safaitic and Hismaic are now seen as types of Old Arabic because they share similar language features. ¹¹ Safaitic, which has the most ancient North Arabian (ANA) writings, shows many features typical of Arabic, though its definite article (like “the”) changes. ¹² Hismaic texts, mostly carved by nomadic groups in the Ḥismā desert, date from 1st century BCE to 4th century AD. ¹¹ Other ANA scripts include Dadanitic, used in the Dadan oasis (now Al-`Ula), and Taymanitic, found in the Tayma oasis. ¹¹ Taymanitic is now classified as a Northwest Semitic language. ¹¹ The word “Thamudic” generally refers to many ANA inscriptions found over a large area from southern Syria to Yemen that haven’t been fully studied. ¹¹ The Nabataean script, which is thought to be an early version of Arabic, developed between the 4th century BCE and 106 CE. It’s an alphabet that only uses consonants, taken from Aramaic, and its flowing style later turned into the Arabic alphabet from the 4th century AD. ¹¹

A big part of Arabic’s early growth comes from the rich tradition of poetry before Islam. ¹³ These old Arabic dialects, seen in inscriptions and poems, existed at the same time as Classical Arabic, which appeared in the 7th century CE. ⁷ The fact that many different pre-Islamic dialects (now seen as forms of Old Arabic) existed alongside the developing Classical Arabic shows that Classical Arabic wasn’t a completely new language. Instead, it was a process of making the language formal, choosing and improving parts that were already present in the lively spoken language. This suggests that Arabic became standardized through a continuous process of change, building on and organizing the existing language diversity, rather than being suddenly created. The excellent poetic quality of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry might also have helped Islam later emphasize the Arabic language. ¹⁴

The table below gives a timeline of important steps in the development of the Arabic language before and during the rise of Classical Arabic:

Table 1: Key Historical Periods in Arabic Language Development

The Quran’s Impact and Classical Arabic

The arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE was the most important event for the Arabic language. The revelation of the Quran played a key role in making it standard and helping it grow. ¹⁵ Before this, Arabic was mostly a spoken language, without a set or organized structure. ¹⁷ The religious need to keep the Quran’s message exactly as it was first given directly led to strong efforts to standardize Arabic grammar and vocabulary. This ensured the language was consistent across different regions. ¹⁵ This wasn’t just for academics; it was a religious necessity that completely changed Arabic from a spoken language into a very organized and precise written system. This new system could handle complex religious and scientific discussions. ¹⁶ The need to accurately record and pass on the holy text also led to improvements in the Arabic script, including adding special marks to remove confusion and ensure correct pronunciation. ⁴ Beyond grammar and writing, the Quran’s language also helped unite different Arabic accents and made the language more lively and beautiful. ¹⁶

The Quran had many effects on the Arabic language. It brought in many new words, common sayings, and ways to build sentences, greatly improving the language’s ability to express ideas. ¹⁵ Words related to Islamic law, religious beliefs, and ethics became a core part of Arabic vocabulary. ¹⁸ The Quranic text itself is famous for its poetic beauty and unique way of speaking, using many literary tools like metaphors, similes, and repetition. ¹⁵ Its style often uses rhyming prose, especially clear in the early chapters from Mecca. ²¹ The Quran also set clear language rules and guidelines that were very important for later writing down Arabic grammar. ¹⁵ Classical Arabic, which is the base for Modern Standard Arabic, is often called Quranic Arabic. It famously kept the full Proto-Semitic system of three grammar cases. ² While the holy text pushed for Arabic to be written down in a formal way, its own creation used existing oral poetry traditions (like rhyming prose) and local dialects (like Old Hijazi). ²¹ This suggests that the standardization wasn’t forced but was a formal process that included and raised up elements from the rich, existing spoken language, showing a lively interaction between old traditions and new ideas.

The deep influence of the Quran led to the rise of early Islamic grammarians. The formal study of Arabic grammar started in the second half of the first century after Hijra (the migration of Prophet Muhammad), because people needed to fix “Lahn” (speech errors) and make sure the Quran was read and understood correctly. ¹⁶ It is widely believed that Ali ibn Abi Taalib was the first to set up Arabic grammar, with Abu’l-Aswad Thaalim ibn ‘Amr al-Dualee further developing and sharing this knowledge. ²⁴ In the eighth century, Sībawayhi wrote the very important

Kitāb Sībawayhi, the first complete Arabic grammar book. His main teacher, al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad, is known for putting together the first large Arabic dictionary. ²⁵ Other important grammarians, like Muʿādh al-Harrāʾ (eighth century), al-Zajjājī (tenth century), and Ibn Jinnī (tenth century), also helped make Arabic word structures, grammar explanations, and language exercises more formal. ²⁵

The standardization of Arabic through the Quran, along with the creation of scholarly centers, allowed Classical Arabic to become the main language for sharing knowledge during the Islamic Golden Age. This period, from the 8th to the 13th century, saw an unmatched desire for knowledge and a huge effort to translate texts. ²⁶ Baghdad, with its famous House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), became a central place for science and astronomy. Here, large collections of translated Greek, Roman, and other classical works were kept, and scholarly work thrived. ⁴ Arabic-speaking scholars built on this ancient knowledge, making huge contributions in fields like astronomy, mathematics (for example, Al-Khwarizmi, often called the “father of algebra”), medicine, and chemistry. ¹ The translation of philosophy texts, especially those by Aristotle and Plato, sparked a strong interest in philosophy, leading to a rich tradition of Islamic philosophy through thinkers like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd). ²⁶ The influence of Arabic scholarship went beyond the Islamic world. When Arabic philosophy texts were translated into Latin, they changed philosophical studies in medieval Europe, especially in natural philosophy, psychology, and metaphysics. ²⁹ This shows how a religious text could accidentally create a global language for science and philosophy, connecting different cultures and eventually influencing European thought.

Global Spread and Arabization

The most important phase of Arabic’s spread began with the early Muslim conquests from the 7th century CE. These pushed Arab culture and language far beyond the Arabian Peninsula. ³⁰ These new Arab empires quickly grew, eventually covering lands from Spain in the west to Central Asia in the east. ³⁰ Arabic, along with Islam, spread to distant parts of the world. ⁴

Trade routes were very important in this expansion. Arab merchants and scholars traveled the Silk Roads, actively promoting their language and culture. ⁴ In Southeast Asia, Muslim merchants from the Arabian Peninsula largely controlled the sea trade between East and West. This connected major ports and helped Islam, and by extension Arabic influence, spread peacefully. ³² New, separate living areas and military towns, like Basra, Kufa, and Fustat, were set up during the rule of Caliph Umar. These served as administrative centers and helped Arab-Muslim armies settle, further spreading the language. ³¹

Arabic quickly became a respected language because of the growing power of the Islamic Empire and its key role in education, government, and business. ³⁴ The benefits of speaking Arabic, such as getting government jobs and having better legal treatment, encouraged local people to learn the language. ³⁴ This shows how political and religious power can directly cause language to change and spread. The language and laws of the Quran were studied widely, and Arabic became the common language in all areas west of the Tigris River. ³¹

The process of Arabization, which means non-Arab people and cultures adopting Arabic language, customs, and identity, happened with different levels of intensity in various regions. ³⁵ This change included cultural practices, social rules, and religious beliefs. ³⁵

In Egypt, even though Arabic was already present in the eastern parts before the conquests, Coptic was the main language. By the Mameluke era, much of the population had adopted Arabic, and Islam became the main religion. ³⁰ Egyptians slowly adopted Arabic, attracted by the social and economic benefits it offered, like chances to work in government. ³⁴

In the Levant (modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine), Aramaic was the main language, and Greek was the official language for government. Arabization and Islamization were slow processes that took several centuries. At first, the Arab conquerors were a separate ruling class and didn’t actively try to spread their language or religion. However, during the Abbasid period (8th-9th centuries), Arabic became more important in government, and its rise as the official state language led to Syrian converts adopting Arab culture and language. Even Christians in the region started speaking Arabic as their first language by the 9th century. By the 13th century, Arabic was the main language. ³⁰

North Africa (the Maghreb) saw a lot of Arabization through waves of Arab migrations starting from the 7th century. These migrations led to Berber people adopting Arab culture and language, causing local Latin (African Romance) to disappear in cities. ³⁰ Arab governments actively encouraged this process. A very important event was the migration of large Bedouin tribes, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, in the 11th century. This greatly spread Bedouin Arabic into rural areas and changed Maghrebi culture. ³⁰

In Iberia (Al-Andalus), under Arab Muslim rule, the region took on parts of Arabic language and culture. Mozarabs, who were Iberian Christians living under Islamic rule, adopted Arabic language and cultural practices. The Muladi, who were local people who converted to Islam, further sped up Arabization. They eventually outnumbered the Mozarabs and spoke Andalusian Arabic. ³⁰

The process of Arabization was not the same in all conquered regions. While areas like the Levant, North Africa, and Iberia saw big language shifts towards Arabic, other regions, like Persia, mostly adopted Arabic words and script but largely kept their own languages. ³⁰ This shows the complex interaction of how strong local languages were, existing cultural structures, and the specific ways Arab conquerors and local people interacted. The result of “Arabization” was not one single outcome, but a range from a complete language change to a strong influence on words and writing, showing the many sides of cultural and language spread.

V. Becoming Diverse, Diglossia, and Modern Changes

Even though Arabic was standardized, it has changed a lot, leading to many different dialects. This language evolution was shaped by things like being separated by geography, long periods of language contact, and various historical events. Over centuries, Arabic dialects became distinct local languages, influenced by old local dialects and, more recently, by European languages like French, English, Italian, and Spanish. ⁴ The mixing of different tribes and native languages, especially clear in North Africa, led to the slow appearance of unique local dialect forms. ⁴ Historical evidence suggests that Arabic dialects existed alongside, and even influenced, the sounds and sentence structures of Classical Arabic from its very beginning. ⁷ Throughout its history, Arabic had a lot of language exchange with Greek, Persian, and Syriac, especially during the early Islamic conquests, which brought in many new words and ideas. ⁷ The colonial period also added to this diversity, as European languages brought new words into both dialects and Modern Standard Arabic. ⁷ Each Arabic dialect is therefore a unique result of its region’s geography, history, and specific cultural interactions. ³⁹ For example, Moroccan Darija shows influences from French, Spanish, and Berber languages, while Chadian Arabic’s pronunciation of certain strong letters was clearly affected by French colonization. ⁴⁰

A key feature of the Arabic language situation is something called diglossia. This term describes when two different forms of the same language are used for different purposes within a community, often by the same people. ⁴¹ In Arabic, the “high” (H) form is Classical Arabic (CA) or Al-Fusha. This is used for formal situations like religious texts, ceremonies, formal education, and literature. ⁴¹ People usually learn this form through formal schooling. ⁴¹ On the other hand, the “low” (L) forms are the regional everyday dialects (Al’Amiya). These are used informally in daily conversations, jokes, and casual talks. ⁴¹ Children naturally learn these spoken forms as their first language, and they are mostly spoken, rarely written. ⁴¹

Connecting these two is Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which acts as an “in-between” form ⁴¹ or the main formal Arabic used worldwide today. ²³ MSA is the language of books, newspapers, official documents, TV news, and formal speeches. ⁴³ While it’s based on Classical Arabic, MSA has changed to fit modern needs, including new words and phrases, making it a more current and accessible formal style. ⁷ Its ability to be understood by educated speakers everywhere helps bridge the communication gap between people who speak different regional dialects. ²³ However, MSA is generally not spoken as a native language in everyday conversation. ⁴³ You can think of it this way: Classical Arabic is the original, sacred, and foundational form, from which MSA developed as a updated and simpler version, while colloquial dialects are the many different spoken variations. ²³

The diglossia in Arabic is a direct result of its history, where a sacred, formal Classical Arabic exists alongside many changing spoken dialects. While this two-part language system allows for wide communication through MSA, it also creates a big language gap that can make it hard for native speakers to learn the language and possibly weaken the new generation’s skill in Classical Arabic. ⁴² Research into how diglossia affects the brain looks at whether Spoken Arabic (SA) and Literary Arabic (LA, which includes MSA/Classical) work as separate languages (L1/L2) or just as different forms of the same language. ⁴² Some studies suggest they have separate word lists, like in bilingualism, while others point to a shared word system with differences in how they are processed depending on how they are used (spoken or written). ⁴² This ongoing discussion among experts shows how complex language learning and processing are in a diglossic environment.

The modernization of Arabic in the 19th and 20th centuries was a time of intentional language changes. This period was greatly influenced by more contact with the Western world, especially after Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt (1798–1801). ⁴⁴ The introduction of the printing press, first in Lebanon (1610) and Aleppo (1702), and then in Egypt (1798, brought back by Muhammad Ali Pasha), was a very important technological step. ⁴⁴ The first Arabic printed newspaper,

Al-Waqa’i’ al-Misriyya (1828), played a key role in forming Modern Standard Arabic. ⁴⁴ These Western contacts and technological advances, especially in the newspaper industry, indirectly led to the

Nahda, or Arab Renaissance, which was a rebirth of Arabic literature. ⁴⁴ Colonial rule and the common use of foreign languages, particularly French, also pushed Arabic writers and scholars to develop the language, as they felt foreign languages were easier to read. ⁴⁷ This led to adding punctuation marks to Arabic texts, inspired by ancient Greek punctuation. ⁴⁷ Modern Arabic literature saw new types of writing appear, such as plays, novels, and short stories, influenced by foreign literary traditions and the growth of journalism. ⁴⁶ More recently, the digital age and the rise of social media have further affected Arabic, leading to new “fuzzy varieties” and mixed languages that combine different dialects and foreign words. ⁴¹ Social media also increases exposure to written Spoken Arabic, influencing how language is used today. ⁴² This period shows how remarkably adaptable the language is, as it actively responded to global changes by creating new words, literary styles, and writing rules to meet modern communication needs.

The following table compares the main features of Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, and major spoken dialects, showing the concept of diglossia in Arabic:

Table 2: Comparing Arabic Language Varieties

VI. Lasting Impact and Current Challenges

The history of Arabic has left a clear mark on many languages around the world. This shows its deep cultural and intellectual reach. This global language footprint is a main way that culture spreads, highlighting the huge influence of Islamic civilization.

Arabic has greatly influenced the words of many languages, especially those in mostly Muslim countries or regions that were historically under Muslim rule. ² Spanish, for example, has one of the largest number of Arabic-influenced words among European languages, with about 8% of its vocabulary coming from Arabic due to the long Arab presence in Southern Spain (Al-Andalus). ² Common examples include “alcohol,” “algebra,” “sugar,” and “cotton.” ⁵⁰ Arabic loanwords are also common in Persian, Turkish, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Maldivian, Pashto, Punjabi, Albanian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Sicilian, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog, Sindhi, Odia, Hebrew, and various African languages like Swahili, which also borrows numbers from Arabic. ² Beyond direct borrowing, Maltese is a special case: it’s a Semitic language that directly came from an Arabic dialect, though it’s written using the Latin alphabet. ² Nubi is another language that came from Arabic. ⁵⁰ In terms of

grammar, Arabic has influenced some Berber languages, which have adopted certain throat sounds from Arabic. ⁵⁰ The widespread

use of the Arabic script by many languages, even those that are not linguistically similar, further shows its influence. This includes Persian (Farsi, Dari, Tajik), Pashto, Kurdish, and Urdu. ³⁷ Turkish also used the Arabic script until 1928, when it officially switched to the Latin alphabet. ³⁸

The lasting cultural and religious importance of Arabic is clear in its ongoing role as the main link for Islamic faith and identity for Muslims worldwide. Its status as the language of prayer and holy texts ensures it continues to be studied and respected far beyond the regions where it’s natively spoken. This deep spiritual and cultural connection goes beyond geographical and dialect differences, ensuring Arabic remains important despite the challenges of different dialects.

In today’s world, Arabic continues to play a big and varied role. It is the main official language in 22 countries across the Middle East and North Africa ⁵² and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. ¹ Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities globally ², with Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) being the only form taught in schools in Arab League countries. ⁴⁴ MSA is also widely used in print and mass media, including books, newspapers, magazines, and TV news. ⁴³ The wide understanding of Egyptian Arabic, for example, is largely due to the strong influence of Egyptian media. ⁵² Beyond its formal uses, Arabic is crucial in connecting the Muslim world to its rich Islamic heritage, serving as the language of the Quran, the Sunnah (Hadiths), and centuries of Islamic knowledge. ⁵³ It is the standard language for Islamic prayers (Salah) and for a deep understanding of Islamic sources. ² For Muslims worldwide, Arabic unites communities through a shared language and spiritual tradition, shaping literature, art (especially calligraphy), poetry, and architecture, thus greatly contributing to a common cultural identity. ¹

Despite its lasting influence, the Arabic language faces several challenges today. The growing use of everyday dialects in daily life, media, and social media has created a noticeable gap between formal Classical Arabic and everyday language. ⁴⁵ This language difference potentially weakens the new generation’s skill in Classical Arabic. ⁴⁵ The fact that some distant colloquial Arabic dialects are hard to understand for speakers of other dialects can make communication difficult between Arabs from different countries, often requiring them to use MSA. ⁴¹ Furthermore, the digital age and globalization have led to new “fuzzy varieties” and mixed languages, influenced by foreign communities and the increasing presence of English. ⁴¹ These challenges highlight the ongoing need to balance language tradition with the demands of modern life, manage the impact of digital technologies on language use, and promote understanding between different faiths and social justice within diverse Arabic-speaking communities. ⁵⁴

The following table shows how Arabic has influenced other languages around the world, grouped by the type of influence:

Table 3: Global Language Impact of Arabic

VII. Conclusion: A Lively and Strong Language

The history of the Arabic language is a fascinating story of constant change, adaptation, and deep influence. From its ancient beginnings as a Central Semitic language, deeply rooted in Proto-Semitic forms and found in early writings across the Arabian Peninsula, Arabic went through a major standardization with the arrival of the Quran. This holy text not only set its grammar rules and expanded its vocabulary but also raised it to a language of unmatched religious and scholarly importance.

The Islamic conquests and wide-ranging sea trade networks that followed pushed Arabic across continents, making it a key language for government, business, and intellectual pursuits. This global spread led to widespread Arabization, a process that, while different in its language outcomes across regions, fundamentally changed cultures and languages. Despite its natural split into many everyday dialects and the rise of diglossia—a complex language split between formal and informal styles—Arabic has shown remarkable ability to adapt. Modernization efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries, driven by outside contact and new technologies like the printing press and new media, saw the language take on new forms and words while firmly keeping its Classical foundation in formal settings.

The lasting impact of Arabic is clear not only in its huge number of speakers today and its official status in many countries but also in its deep language influence on many other languages worldwide. Its ongoing role as the spiritual and cultural anchor for Muslims globally further highlights its strength and importance. Dealing with the complexities of diglossia and the rapid changes of the digital age, Arabic remains a lively and strong language, continuously shaping and being shaped by the diverse societies that use it.