Summary: Islam burst upon the global scene in the ‘7^th century and transformed a nomadic people into prime movers of a world civilization. Prophet Muhammed (p) was the architect of that transformation. His death in 632 presented the Islamic community with its first major challenge. The Muslims met this challenge by establishing the institution of the Caliphate and affirming the continuity of historical Islam. The nascent Islamic state, with its capital at Madina, successfully defended itself from the predatory reach of the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires. But that very success sowed the seeds of dissension in the community. The captured wealth of Persia brought greed and nepotism and resulted in the assassination of the third Caliph Uthman bin Affan (r). The fourth Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib (r) tried to stem the tide of corruption and return to the pristine purity of faith but he was swept away by the whirlwinds created by the assassination of Uthman (r). With the death of Ali (r), the curtain fell on the age of faith in Islamic history

Civilizations are tested by crises just as individuals face adversity. It is during these critical moments that the true character of a civilization is revealed, similar to how personal challenges can unveil an individual’s character. Great civilizations rise to meet their challenges and become more resilient with each crisis, transforming adversity into opportunity. The same applies to individuals. Key moments in history test the resolve of people. Exceptional men and women shape history according to their vision, while those who are less strong may be overwhelmed by the upheavals of time.

This article operates on the fundamental premise that the main conflict within the world of Islam is internal. The successes and challenges faced by this universal community of believers are closely linked to how well they adhere to the transcendent values taught by the Prophet. The unity or division within this global community has significantly influenced its fate. When the followers of Islam remained committed to the divine teachings of the Qur’an and the legacy of the Prophet, they achieved success. In contrast, when they lost sight of that legacy, they fell into disarray and were marginalized throughout history.

When the Prophet (sas) Passed Away

The death of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) marked the first significant crisis faced by the Islamic community. The way this community responded to the crisis has shaped its strengths and weaknesses over the centuries that followed. This pivotal moment defined the historical framework of Islam. Following the Prophet’s death, prominent figures such as Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him), Omar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him), Uthman bin Affan (may Allah be pleased with him), and Ali ibn Abu Talib (may Allah be pleased with him) emerged in history. Their actions and decisions have significantly influenced the course of Islamic history over the past 1,400 years.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was the cornerstone of Muslim life. No other individual in history held a position similar to his in relation to his people. He was the focal point for all social, spiritual, political, economic, military, and judicial activities. As the founder and architect of the emerging community, he served as both Prophet and Messenger of God. When he passed away, he left an irreplaceable void. His legacy faced immediate challenges upon his death. At stake was the continuity of the historical process he had initiated. The Prophet had united a community of believers, transcending their loyalty to tribe, race, or nationality. The bond that held this unity together was the Qur’an and the Sunnah (traditions) of the Prophet. With the Prophet gone, there were concerns that the divisive forces Islam had overcome might remerge and threaten to fracture the newly formed community.

The initial reaction to the death of the Prophet was one of shock, disbelief, and denial. The deep love that the Companions had for the Prophet made it difficult for them to accept his absence. He was so central to the community’s life that they could not envision a future without him. When Omar ibn al-Khattab (r) heard the news of the Prophet’s passing, he was overwhelmed with grief. In his distress, he drew his sword and declared, “Some hypocrites are claiming that the Prophet of God—may God’s peace and blessings be upon him—has died. By God, I swear that he has not died; he has gone to join his Lord, just as other Prophets have done in the past. Moses was absent from his people for forty nights and returned when they had declared him dead. By God, the Prophet of God will return just as Moses returned. Any man who spreads a false rumor about Muhammad’s death shall have his arms and legs cut off by this hand.” The people listened to Omar (r), too stunned to accept that the man who had transformed Arabia from a backwater of history to a focal point of the historical process was truly gone. The situation was indeed grave.

The resilience of Islam was exemplified in the person of Abu Bakr (r). After confirming that the Prophet had indeed passed away, he entered the mosque where Omar (r) was addressing the people and recited a passage from the Qur’an: “Muhammed is but a Prophet before whom many prophets have come and gone. Should he die or be killed, will you give up your faith? Know that whoever relinquishes their faith will cause no harm to God, but God will surely reward those who are grateful to Him” (Qur’an, 3:144).

It was as if the people were hearing this passage for the first time; it struck them like a bolt of lightning. Omar (r) later recounted that when he heard it, his legs shook as he realized that the Messenger of God had indeed departed from this world. The mortality of the Prophet was established, while the transcendence of God was reaffirmed. The civilization of Islam was intended to be God-centered, not man-centered. Its foundation was to rest on God and His Word. Although the Prophet, the man who had brought the Divine Word and fulfilled his historical mission, had passed away, the light that shone through him would continue to guide future generations. Islam retained its transcendent character, ensuring its survival despite the physical absence of the Prophet and allowing it to emerge as a dynamic force in the historical process.

The situation was fluid, uncertain and fraught with grave risks. The body of the Messenger who had led one of the greatest spiritual revolutions known to humankind was in the corner of a small room. Here was the man who had transformed a tribal society into a community of believers and made them masters of their own destiny. Wave after wave of men moved past the body, sobbing, shaking their heads, unsure of the future. They were now without the anchor that had supported them, without the leader who had sustained them, without the teacher who had taught them, without the statesman who had led them, without the Prophet who had brought the message of Divine transcendence.

The process of succession and its legacy for future generations were at stake. Islam had set for itself a mission to create a global community enjoining was is right, forbidding what is evil and believing in God. How was this mission to be fulfilled in the matrix of history without the physical presence of the Prophet? How was the edifice of a God-conscious community to be erected without the architect who had conceived it? Did the Prophet leave behind specific instructions on the issue of succession? If he did not, what was the wisdom behind that decision?

The Aftermath

IImmediately after the Prophet’s death, differing views emerged regarding succession. The first viewpoint came from the Ansar, the residents of Medina who had offered protection and support to the Muhajirs from Mecca. They believed that, as the hosts who stood by the Prophet during his time of need, they deserved leadership of the community. At the very least, they argued for a shared leadership, proposing a committee of two leaders—one from the Muhajirs and one from the Ansar—to guide the community.

The second viewpoint supported Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (r). This group based their argument on the fact that the Prophet, when he became too ill to lead congregational prayers, had appointed Abu Bakr (r) as the Imam. Abu Bakr (r) was the first man to accept Islam and was also one of the Prophet’s closest companions. Authentic ahadith confirm the deep affection and high regard the Prophet had for Abu Bakr (r).

The third viewpoint was held by supporters of Ali ibn Abu Talib (r). Ali (r), who was a cousin of the Prophet and married to Fatimah (r), the beloved daughter of the Prophet, was the first young person to embrace Islam.Prophet had referred to him as his heir and his brother. The Islamic community reconciled the first two positions in the first hours following the death of the Prophet but differences of opinion remained on the third issue. These differences led, in later years, to the Shi’a-Sunni schism, which runs like a great earthquake fault through Islamic history. Its recurrent divisive and destructive power shows itself at critical moments such as the massacre at Karbala (680), the Battle of Chaldiran (1517) and the Iran-Iraq war (1979-1987).

There was wisdom in the decision of the Prophet to leave the issue of succession to the collective judgment of the community. A universal religion must have validity for all peoples and at all times. It must have relevance to the people of the 21^st century as it did to those who lived at the time of the Prophet. It must have meaning to the most sophisticated person as well as to the bushman in the jungle. The wisdom of the Prophet lies in the fact that whereas the principles of Islam are spelled out in their complete form in the Qur’an and are exemplified in the Sunnah of the Prophet, their implementation at specific times and in specific locations is left to the historical process. In other words, Islam is an existential religion. Its realization and fulfillment is a process that is eternal and incumbent upon each generation of believers. The position that the Prophet left specific instructions on the issue of political succession does not correlate with the existential aspects of Islam. However, not all Muslims share this view. Partisan positions on the issue of succession are taken based only on those ahadith, which support that position. But history is a merciless judge. With the passage of time, the differences on the issue of succession were solidified, leading to recurrent dissension, rebellion, repression and civil war.

Urged by community leaders to prevent a division, Abu Bakr (r) and Omar ibn al-Khattab (r) went to the courtyard of Banu Saida, where the Ansar were gathered to elect their leader. One of the Ansar expressed his concerns, saying, “We are the Ansar—the helpers of God and the army of Islam. You, the Muhajirun, are merely a brigade in the army. However, some of you have gone so far as to seek to deprive us of our rightful leadership and deny us our rights.”

In response, Abu Bakr (r) addressed the Ansar: “O men of the Ansar! We, the Muhajirun, were the first to accept Islam. We come from the noblest lineage and descent, and we are the most reputable and respected group in Arabia. Moreover, we are the closest blood relatives of the Prophet. The Qur’an itself has granted us preference, for it is God—may He be exalted in praise—who said, ‘First and foremost were the Muhajirun, then the Ansar, and those who have followed in virtue and righteousness.'”

Then, taking the hands of Omar (r) and Abu Ubaida, who were seated beside him, Abu Bakr (r) stated, “Either one of these two men is an acceptable leader of the Muslim community. Choose whoever you please.”

At that moment, Omar (r) raised Abu Bakr’s (r) hand and said, “O Abu Bakr! Did not the Prophet command you to lead the Muslims in prayer? Therefore, you are his successor. By electing you, we are choosing the best of all whom the Prophet of God loved and trusted.”

The Ansar and the Muhajirun then stepped forward and took the oath of allegiance (baiyah) to Abu Bakr (r).

Thus it was that the nascent Islamic community resolved the issue of succession and embarked on constructing the edifice of their history. The process did not quite satisfy Ali ibn Abu Talib (r), Talha ibn Ubaidallah and Zubair ibn al Awwam. Ali (r), representing the family of the Prophet, was busy with the funeral preparations. Talha and Zubair were not in the preliminary consultations. Initially, Ali (r) withheld his oath of allegiance. But when Abu Sufyan approached him to declare himself the Caliph, Ali (r) saw the dangers of division in the community and accepted the Caliphate of Abu Bakr (r). According to Ibn Khaldun, Ali ibn Abu Talib (r) took his baiyah forty days after the death of the Prophet. According to Ibn Kathir, this happened only after the death of Fatima (r), six months after the Prophet’s death. Talha ibn Ubaidallah and Zubair ibn al Awwam gave their baiyah soon thereafter.

The Shi’a chroniclers do not accept the majority version, maintaining instead that the Caliphate was rightfully Ali’s (r) by deputation from the Prophet. However, there is consensus among all chroniclers that any differences regarding the issue of succession were quiescent during the time of Abu Bakr (r) and Omar (r) and did not surface in the open until the Caliphate of Uthman (r). It was much later, as positions hardened during the Umayyad (665-750) and Abbasid (750-1258) dynasties, that both sides advanced doctrinal arguments to support partisan opinions on the Caliphate and Wilayat / Imamate. Thus it was that Shi’a-Sunni differences were based not on religion or faith but had their origin in the politics of succession and history.

Some Sufis add another dimension to the issue of succession in Islam. They represent the spiritual and esoteric aspects of the faith, which have profoundly influenced the course of Islamic history. In their perspective, the spirituality of humankind revolves around a Qutub in every age. The term “Qutub” means pivot, pole, chief, or leader. When a Prophet is present on earth, he serves as the Qutub, cleansing humanity’s consciousness to make it worthy of receiving Divine Illumination.

For example, Moses was the Qutub during his lifetime, as were David, Solomon, Joseph, and Jesus at various times. When Muhammad was alive, he was the spiritual pole for humankind. After his death, the mantle of spirituality passed to his daughter, Fatima (ra). Following Fatima, it was passed to Ali ibn Abu Talib (ra). Most Sufi orders trace their spiritual lineage back to Ali (ra), and by extension, to Fatima (ra) and ultimately to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).

The Sufis maintain that as long as Fatima (ra) was alive, Ali (ra) could not have pledged allegiance (baiyah) to Abu Bakr (ra). It was only after Fatima (ra) passed away, six months after the Prophet’s death, that Ali (ra) finally gave his allegiance to Abu Bakr (ra). According to this view, the mantle of spirituality continued to reside with Ali ibn Abu Talib (ra), to whom important juridical matters were referred by the Caliphs Abu Bakr (ra), Omar (ra), and Uthman (ra), and even by the faction led by Muawiya.

In selecting Abu Bakr (r), the Companions established several precedents. They demonstrated that the Muslims were a living community capable of articulating their own destiny through a collective consultative process in the absence of the Prophet. They established that the Caliph, as the temporal ruler of the Islamic community, had to be a man of piety, trust, knowledge, strength, justice, integrity and righteousness. The community was like a newborn child taking its first breath after being cut off from the umbilical cord connecting it to its spiritual parent.

The Period of Abu Bakr Siddique (r)

Upon accession to the Caliphate, Abu Bakr (r) was faced with several crises. The immediate issue was the dispatch of the army to the north to face the Byzantines. The Muslims had faced a stalemate with the Byzantines at the Battle of Tabuk and had lost their leader Zaid bin Haris. A follow up defensive expedition had been initiated by the Prophet to safeguard the northern approaches to Madina. Abu Bakr (r) reaffirmed the decision of the Prophet and dispatched an expedition under Usama bin Zaid. The expedition was successful and it demonstrated the strength and cohesiveness of the Muslims even in the absence of the Prophet.

The second challenge was the refusal of certain Arab tribes to pay the Zakat. In pre-Islamic Arabia, society was organized into tribes, and many of these tribes had reluctantly accepted Islam in the final days of the Prophet Muhammad. After his death, they saw an opportunity to stop paying the mandatory Zakat, which they misconstrued as just another form of taxation.

Zakat is not only a moral obligation in Islam but also a legal one. It serves as an act of purification and is considered one of the five pillars of Islam, forming an essential part of the faith. In Islam, the economic well-being of the community is just as important as that of the individual. A person’s belief is not complete unless they wish for their neighbor what they wish for themselves. Islam discourages hoarding and promotes sharing and investment. Zakat facilitates the circulation of wealth and opposes the accumulation of resources. Whenever the Qur’an emphasizes the establishment of prayer, it also underscores the importance of paying Zakat. Neglecting Zakat would undermine the moral foundation of the Islamic state and reduce Islam to a mere list of personal beliefs and practices. Abu Bakr (r) took strong action against those who refused to pay Zakat. He personally led several expeditions to bring rebellious tribes under the authority of the state.

The third crisis faced by Abu Bakr (r) was the rise of false prophets. Observing the success and prosperity of the Muslims, many individuals claiming to be prophets (and some prophetesses) emerged throughout Arabia. Religion has historically been a lucrative business, and many charlatans saw an opportunity in the success of Islam to establish their own sects and profit from them.

In response to this challenge, Abu Bakr (r) declared war on the false prophets and initiated eleven expeditions against these pretenders. The most notable of these was the campaign led by Khalid bin Walid against Musailimah al-Kazzab, which culminated in the Battle of Yamama. Similar expeditions were dispatched to Yemen, Amman, and Hazeefa, all of which were successful.

During the campaign against Musailimah al-Kazzab, many of the Prophet’s Companions lost their lives. A significant number of these individuals were hufaz, meaning they had memorized the Qur’an. The Qur’an was revealed to the Prophet as spoken words, which were memorized by hundreds of his companions. The martyrdom of so many hufaz at the Battle of Yamama raised considerable concern among the Companions. Following the advice of Omar, Abu Bakr (r) ordered the Qur’an to be written down in order to preserve it, as it was revealed to the Prophet, for future generations. The first written copy of the Qur’an is known as the Mashaf e Siddiqi.

IIn the geopolitics of West Asia, neither the Byzantines nor the Persians could tolerate an independent, united, and strong Arabia. Both powers had coveted the Arabian Peninsula for centuries. The Romans had occupied Syria and Jordan, while the Persians had subjugated Iraq, Yemen, and Hejaz. Alongside the geopolitical considerations, a religious factor emerged. Prophet Muhammad (p) fulfilled his mission as the Messenger of God by sending greetings to the rulers of these two powers, inviting them to accept Islam.

Heraclius, the Byzantine chief, replied politely but ordered his troops into action on the northern borders of Arabia. In contrast, Khosroe, the Persian emperor, tore up the Prophet’s letter and commanded his forces in Yemen to march on Medina to arrest the Prophet. To thwart the ambitions of both the Byzantines and the Persians, the Prophet initiated defensive actions to the north and the east. The campaigns led by Abu Bakr (r) against the Byzantines and the Persians were a continuation of the efforts started by the Prophet himself.

Political developments in West Asia soon worked in favor of the emerging Islamic state. Persia was in turmoil. There was murder and mayhem in the imperial court. Sheroya, the eldest son of Khosroe Pervez murdered his father and all of his own brothers and usurped the throne. Eight months later, Sheroya died in mysterious circumstances and his infant son was made the monarch. The infant son was also killed and a number of courtiers claimed the throne, only to be murdered one after the other. Finally, the only surviving youngster in the Persian dynasty, Yazdgar, was made the emperor and a woman of the royal household was appointed his regent.

The weakness of Persia created military opportunities for its neighbors. Heraclius, the new Byzantine emperor, waged a series of campaigns (625-635) and won back some of the territories his predecessor had lost to the Persians. The explosive growth of the Islamic state since the Hijra (622) brought its borders to the River Euphrates, which marked the southwestern boundary of the Persian Empire. The Arab tribes near the Persian border, centered on the town of al Hirah, were restive. They had for a long period enjoyed an autonomous status under the protection of the Persian court. But Khosroe, the Persian monarch, had revoked that autonomy and had turned the areas into imperial colonies. Resentment had built up over increased taxes. Some of these tribes had accepted Islam during the life of the Prophet but had become apostates when he passed away. Abu Bakr (r) was aware of these developments. So, when Al Muthannah ibn Harithah, chief of the Banu Shaiban clan in eastern Arabia, approached him with a proposal to rally the Arab tribes against Persia, the Caliph agreed. Remembering their shifting loyalties, Abu Bakr (r) advised Al Muthannah to recruit only those tribes that had previously not become apostates.

Khalid bin Walid had successfully completed his operations against the apostate Arabs in eastern Arabia. Following this, Abu Bakr (r) ordered him to join forces with Al Muthannah. Together, they advanced into southern Iraq. An invitation was sent to Humuz, the Persian governor of the province, urging him to accept Islam and join its global mission. If he refused, he was given two alternatives: to accept the protection of the Muslim state or face war. Governor Humuz rejected all these options, leading to the outbreak of hostilities.

The Arab armies first subdued Khadima in 633, near modern Kuwait. From there, they moved on to the port city of Ubullah, which is near the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab in present-day Basrah. Turning north along the western banks of the Euphrates River, Khalid’s forces quickly overcame Persian resistance at Al Hirah and Al Anbar. The Arab tribes in the region welcomed their fellow Arabs as liberators from Persian imperial rule.

However, Khalid’s rapid advance left his northern flank vulnerable. This area, known as Domatul Jandal by the Arabs, was located near the confluence of Syria and Iraq and was inhabited by Christian Arabs who openly supported the Byzantines. After subduing Domatul Jandal, Khalid and his troops returned to Mecca to perform the Hajj. Upon his return to the battlefield, Abu Bakr (r) ordered him to head to the Syrian front, where a decisive confrontation with the Byzantine Empire was about to unfold.

The rise of a unified Arab state under Islam was equally unacceptable to both the Byzantines and the Persians. At the time of the Prophet Muhammad, the Byzantines had tested Muslim defenses in preparation for a potential invasion of Arabia. To counter this threat, the Prophet conducted the campaign of Tabuk. Continued pressure from the Byzantines led the Prophet to send an expedition under Zaid bin Harithah. Unfortunately, this engagement was indecisive, and Zaid bin Harithah was killed in the campaign. The Prophet then organized a second campaign under Usama bin Zaid; however, the Prophet passed away before this campaign could begin.

Abu Bakr (r) reaffirmed the Prophet’s decision to send an army to the northern borders. The instructions given by Abu Bakr (r) to Usama bin Zaid, the commander of the Muslim forces, are notable for their ethical content.

• Do not kill children, women and old men.
• Do not harm the disabled and do not disfigure the bodies of those killed in battle.
• Do not destroy standing crops and do not cut down trees bearing fruit.
• Do not be dishonest and misappropriate war booty.
• Do not kill animals except as is necessary for food.

These injunctions have served as a foundational basis for a Muslim code of ethics for both kings and soldiers over the last 1,400 years.

The military campaigns led by Usama bin Zaid were also inconclusive. The threat of invasion from the north intensified daily as the Byzantines prepared for war. In response, Abu Bakr (r) decided to take preemptive action and ordered an invasion of Syria. An army of 27,000 was assembled and organized into three corps, all under the overall command of Abu Ubaidah bin Jarrah.

Abu Ubaidah was responsible for the central army corps directed at Syria, while a second corps, led by Amr bin al-As, was directed at Palestine, and a third corps, commanded by Shurahbil ibn Hasanah, was aimed at Jordan. Initial skirmishes occurred at Wadi Arabah and Ghazzah. The three armies then advanced towards Damascus, but the main Byzantine forces, under Theodorus, the brother of Emperor Heraclius, blocked their further progress in the narrow gorge between Mount Hermon and Mount Hawran.

Khalid bin Walid achieved one of his most memorable victories in this region. After rapidly marching westward from Iraq, he encountered only minor resistance along the way. Upon arriving at the battlefield, Khalid executed a clever strategy by moving in an enveloping arc to bypass the Byzantine army and the Muslim divisions. He attacked the enemy positions from the rear while the main divisions, led by Abu Ubaidah, launched a frontal assault. The Byzantines were taken by surprise, leading their columns to disperse. The Muslim forces pursued the retreating Byzantines, inflicting heavy casualties. By 635, Damascus had fallen, and soon after, the cities of Balbak and Hama were also under Muslim control.

Emperor Heraclius was determined not to easily give up the strategic province of Syria. A respected general known for his previous victories against the Persians, he assembled a new army of 200,000 soldiers and marched south along the coast, aiming to reach Beersheba and cut off the supply routes for the Muslim forces.

Upon learning of Heraclius’s movements through his intelligence network, Khalid made a strategic decision to execute a wide maneuver. He allied with Amr bin al-As, traveled to Beersheba, and gathered additional troops from the garrison there. The combined forces then marched north to confront Heraclius. The two armies ultimately clashed at Ajnadain, resulting in another defeat for the Byzantines.

Heraclius found himself in a dangerous military situation, with escape routes to both the north and south blocked. He ordered his troops to regroup at the banks of the Yarmuk River, near the town of Dir’a. Demonstrating his skill in rapid maneuvering, Khalid bin Walid bypassed the enemy lines and launched an attack from the north, while the Byzantines faced off against the divisions of Abu Ubaidah to the south. As if fate were intervening, a violent sandstorm struck, blinding the Byzantine troops, while the Arab forces, accustomed to desert conditions, adapted quickly. This led to the collapse of Byzantine resistance.

The Battle of Yarmuk, which took place in 636, was one of the most decisive battles in history. It marked the end of Byzantine rule in West Asia and set the stage for further Muslim conquests in Egypt and North Africa. Shortly after the Battle of Yarmuk, Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) passed away at the age of 63. His Caliphate lasted for two years and three months.

Abu Bakr (r) served as a crucial link between Prophet Muhammed (p) and the establishment of historical Islam. Without his leadership, the institution of Zakat could have vanished, fundamentally altering the essence of the religion. The legal framework of the state would have faced significant challenges, potentially leading to the collapse of the community. Abu Bakr (r) upheld the traditions of the Prophet, avoided introducing innovations, addressed internal disputes, established the rule of law, suppressed false prophets, and successfully defended the emerging state against the Byzantine and Persian Empires. He demonstrated that Muslims were a vibrant and dynamic community. Under his leadership, Islam began its historical journey without the Prophet but was inspired by the message of the Qur’an and the teachings of his Sunnah.