Jerusalem, the Fall of

The fall of Jerusalem was a consequence of the ongoing civil wars caused by the competing Sunni and Shi’a perspectives on Islamic history. The Crusades, which began in 996, represented an intercontinental invasion spanning over 3,000 miles from Spain to Palestine. At that time, the Islamic world was divided into three major factions: the Turks who supported the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo who controlled North Africa and Syria, and the Spanish Umayyads who ruled from Cordoba. Each of these groups claimed to be the legitimate heir to the Caliphate.

Meanwhile, powerful forces were at work in both Europe and Asia, shaping the course of events. By the year 1000, the conversion of the Germans to Christianity was complete. The Swedes, who had ravaged Europe as Viking pirates for two hundred years, followed suit. With the infusion of Germanic blood, Europe began to reassert itself. By 1020, the Muslims who had occupied southern France and the mountain passes in Switzerland were expelled. The island of Sardinia was lost in 1016. In 1072, Palermo fell, and by 1091, all of Sicily was lost. The end of the Umayyad Caliphate in Spain created an opportunity for the Christians. Spain fragmented into warring emirates, which subsequently fell one after the other to the Christian onslaught. The Visigoth capital city of Toledo was captured in 1085. In 1087, the old Fatimid capital of Mahdiya (in modern Tunisia) was sacked. In 1090, Malta was seized, providing a base for transportation to Palestine and the Syrian coast.

During the consolidation of power in the northern Mediterranean by Europe, open warfare erupted among Muslims vying for the Caliphate. Throughout the 11th century, the Fatimids engaged in battles on two fronts: against the Umayyads in Spain to the west and the Turks in Syria to the east. In 1057, in retaliation for an uprising by the Sunni population, the Fatimids devastated North Africa, sacking the renowned learning center of Kairouan. As a result, Algeria and Morocco did not recover from this destruction for two hundred years.

In 1077, Hassan al-Sabbah, the founder of the Assassin movement, visited Cairo and formed a secret alliance with the Fatimid court. Two years later, in 1090, he seized control of Alamut in northern Persia, using it as a base to train his group of fidayeen. In 1091, the Assassins assassinated Nizam ul-Mulk, the grand vizier of the Seljuks. Shortly thereafter, in 1092, Sultan Malik Shah died, leading to chaos within the Seljuk ranks. The Fatimids capitalized on this turmoil to reclaim Jerusalem in 1095, after having lost it to the Turks ten years earlier.

Not only were Muslims divided among the Fatimids, Turks, and Umayyads, but there were also fierce feuds over succession within each faction.

When Rome received a plea for help from Byzantine monarch Alexius after the defeat at Manzikert in August 1072, Pope Urban II recognized a significant opportunity. This was not only a chance to mend the rift with the Church of Constantinople, which had occurred in 1054 over the issue of icons, but also to reclaim the Cross and the Holy Sepulcher from Muslim control. In a powerful speech in 1095, he proclaimed the First Crusade. The Pope was a skilled politician and an impressive orator. He traveled throughout southern France, inspiring people to take the oath of the Cross and march toward Jerusalem. In return, he promised forgiveness of sins, the cancellation of debts, and rewards in heaven. Hundreds of thousands answered his call—counts, knights, farmers, artisans, and paupers all joined the march. As a result, the Crusades became more of a mass movement than a conflict fought by a trained army with a well-thought-out plan. According to Ibn Khaldun, nearly 900,000 people participated in the First Crusade, and the sheer number of participants significantly influenced the military tactics used in the conflict.

The Crusaders started from two staging areas. One was at Blois near Paris and the other near Cologne in Germany. The southern group marched through Italy, picking up more recruits and was ferried by the Venetians from Italy to the Balkan coast before moving on to Constantinople. The northern group marched down the Danube, ravaging the Hungarian lands as it went. Alexius, the Byzantine Emperor, aware of the frenzy of these mobs, deftly kept both groups out of his capital. From Constantinople, this motley group of warriors, peasants and adventurers advanced into Anatolia.

One of the astonishing facts about the Crusades is the small resistance offered by the Turks and the Arabs to the Crusader advance. The Seljuks had conquered the Anatolian peninsula during the previous century but had not yet consolidated their hold on the hinterland. The entire territory was lightly defended. They were caught unprepared. The first battle took place at Nicaea (1098), which was located in Seljuk territories. The Turks, whose success on the battlefield depended on their ability for rapid deployment and encircling cavalry, could not maneuver their forces amid the frenzied mobs attacking them. They found themselves in slugging matches with the Europeans wherein they had little advantage.The day belonged to the Crusaders and the Seljuks had to retreat. This defeat encouraged the local Greek and Armenian populations to rise up against the Turkish garrisons in many of the cities. Dorylauem (near modern Ankara) was lost the following month. An informer betrayed Antioch in northern Syria. From Antioch, the Crusader mobs split into two: one advanced down the Lebanese coast (held by the Fatimids), which offered no resistance and the other moved through eastern Lebanon (held by Turkish emirs) towards Homs, wherein only light resistance was offered.

Even as the invaders advanced through Anatolia and northern Syria, the Fatimids in Cairo were engaged in negotiations with the Crusaders to divide up the conquered Seljuk territories. The Fatimids saw in the death of Malik Shah (1092) and the ensuring contest for succession among the Seljuks a golden opportunity to recover the territories they had lost to the Turks in Syria and Palestine. The Byzantines, who were guiding the Latin Crusaders through the intricate politics of the region, were well aware of the internal squabbles among the Muslims. The Crusaders sent a delegation to Cairo in 1097 to negotiate terms of an understanding. A memorandum was signed in Antioch in February 1098 according to which the Fatimids resumed control of Tyre and Sidon. But further negotiations broke down in May 1099 over the issue of Jerusalem. The Latins, aware that Cairo would need about two months to raise an army to defend Jerusalem, hastened their march towards that city.

A small garrison of 5,000 troops lightly defended Jerusalem, which the Fatimids had recaptured from the Seljuks in 1095. So confident were the Fatimids about reaching an accord with the Latins that they had made no attempt to reinforce this small contingent. The Crusaders knew of this weakness through information gathered from their spies within the city walls. The battle for Jerusalem began on the 10^th of June 1099. The Crusaders blew their horns and shouted their slogans in the expectation that the walls of the city would come tumbling down. When this did not materialize, a direct assault on the citadel began. Initial assaults were unsuccessful because the Latins had little technical knowledge about building engines of war. But help soon arrived from Constantinople and Venice. On the 17^th of June, a fleet of six Venetian ships arrived at Jaffa carrying fresh troops, timber and Byzantine engineers experienced in the art of building ramparts, rams and catapults. The infusion of this know-how along with fresh supplies changed the course of the siege. Sturdy ramparts were built and the assault was resumed.

Jerusalem fell on July 15, 1099. A contemporary account by Al Kalanisi states: “The Crusaders advanced towards Jerusalem at the end of Rajab. The local population fled in panic before them. They first descended upon Ramallah, capturing it after the crops had ripened. From there, they marched to Jerusalem, where they engaged with the inhabitants and laid siege to the city. They constructed a tower against the city wall to aid their assault.

They received word that al-Afdal, the vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo, was approaching from Egypt with a powerful army to engage in jihad, intending to protect the city and destroy the Crusaders. Consequently, the Crusaders attacked with renewed vigor, prolonging the battle until nightfall before withdrawing, promising the townsfolk they would return to attack again the next day.

As the townsfolk descended from the wall at sunset, the Franks renewed their assault, climbed the tower, and gained a foothold on the city wall. The defenders were driven back, and the Franks stormed the city, taking possession of it. Many townspeople sought sanctuary at the Haram as Sharif, where they were slaughtered. The Jews gathered in the synagogue, which the Franks burned over their heads. The Haram was surrendered to the Crusaders on the 22nd of Shaaban, but they destroyed the shrines and the tomb of Abraham.

According to Ibn Kathir, the Crusaders alone slaughtered 70,000 Muslims and Jews in Jerusalem. This figure seems plausible given the topography of Palestine, which was characterized by a few fortified towns and numerous small villages. When under attack, villagers would seek refuge within the walls of the nearest fort, swelling the city’s population. The Crusaders established their headquarters at the Haram and converted the Al-Aqsa mosque into a stable for their horses.”

Upon hearing of the fall of Jerusalem, Al Afdal, the grand vizier in Cairo, rushed to recapture the city. Although Egypt was no longer the formidable power it had been under Muiz, it still possessed significant military strength. An initial contingent of 5,000 cavalry was augmented by 10,000 infantry and thousands of volunteers. This force marched up the Sinai Peninsula and camped at Ascalon, waiting for further reinforcements by sea and land. Ascalon, located near modern Gaza, was the last major stronghold of the Fatimids before reaching Jerusalem.

The movement of this contingent was reported to the Latin camp, prompting the Crusaders to advance south to confront the Egyptians. Unfortunately for Al Afdal, his intelligence failed him at this crucial moment. On August 12, 1099, his camp was ambushed. The strong Egyptian cavalry was overwhelmed, and the infantry was routed. Al Afdal managed to escape with a few of his bodyguards.

Shortly after the fall of Jerusalem, disputes arose among the warring Latin factions over who should govern the city. The Church, which had orchestrated the entire campaign, intervened at critical moments to ensure that these disagreements did not jeopardize the overall mission. The Crusaders were unfamiliar with a centralized administration, so they imposed the only governing system they knew-feudalism-and installed Baldwin as the King of Jerusalem.